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  • What Is Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Learning Theory? – TeachThought

    November 19, 2025

    What Is Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Learning Theory?

    by TeachThought Staff

    What did Vygotsky say about learning?

    Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory describes learning as a fundamentally social process and locates the origins of human intelligence within cultural activity. A central theme of this framework is that social interaction plays a primary role in cognitive development: knowledge is first constructed between people and later internalized by the individual (Vygotsky, 1978).

    Also known as the Sociohistorical Theory, Vygotsky’s model emphasizes how cultural context, shared activities, and especially language shape the development of higher mental functions. Learning and development are inseparable from the social and cultural environments in which individuals participate.

    Vygotsky argued that learning unfolds on two levels—initially through interaction with others and then within the learner’s internal psychological processes. As he explained: “Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological)… All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals” (Vygotsky, 1978).

    • Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
    Concept Brief Explanation Classroom Example
    Zone of Proximal Development The space between what a learner can do alone and what they can do with guidance. A student solves multi-step math problems only after the teacher models the first step.
    Social Interaction Learning develops through guided interaction with more knowledgeable others. Peers discuss a science concept and clarify it for each other using everyday language.
    Cultural Tools & Mediation Language, symbols, and cultural practices shape thinking and problem-solving. A teacher models how to read a graph, and the student later uses the same conventions independently.
    Scaffolding Temporary instructional support that fades as the learner gains mastery. Students begin with sentence starters but later write independently as supports fade.
    Private Speech Self-directed speech that becomes internalized and guides problem-solving. A child whispers instructions to themselves while assembling a puzzle.

    Let’s take a look at the principles of his learning theory.

    Key Concepts of Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

    1. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

    According to Vygotsky, the Zone of Proximal Development “is the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem-solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem-solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers.” This idea aligns with broader perspectives on cognition described in “Learning Theories for Teachers.”

    Through collaborative interactions, a more skilled person, such as a teacher or a peer, can provide support to scaffold the learner’s understanding and skills. This emphasis on guided learning is similar to principles discussed in Principles of Social Learning Theory.

    This ‘zone’ is a level of understanding or ability to use a skill where the learner is able, from a knowledge or skill standpoint, to grasp or apply the idea but only with the support of a More Knowledgeable Other (Briner, 1999).

    Example: A student can solve multi-step math problems only when the teacher models the first step; over time, the student internalizes the process and completes similar problems independently. Another example is a reader who can summarize a text when guided with prompts (“What happened first?”) but not alone.

    This ‘MKO’ can be another student, parent, teacher, etc.—anyone with a level of understanding or skill that allows the student to master a knowledge or skill that could not otherwise be mastered. Strategies that support work in this Zone of Proximal Development include modeling, direct instruction, collaborative learning (closely related to the distinctions discussed in The Difference Between Constructivism and Constructionism, the Concept Attainment Model, Combination Learning, and more.

    2. Social Interaction

    Vygotsky emphasized the importance of social interactions in cognitive development. He believed that learning occurs through interactions with others, particularly more knowledgeable individuals. Language plays a central role in these interactions, as it enables communication, the transmission of knowledge, and the development of higher mental processes. These ideas connect to the learner-centered approach described in Constructionism (See above).

    Example: A student learning a new science concept becomes more proficient after discussing it with a peer who explains it in everyday language. Similarly, a teacher-led think-aloud during a reading activity models how to analyze a text, helping students internalize the reasoning process.

    Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory said that “Learning occurs through vicarious reinforcement–observing a behavior and its consequences (which have social ramifications).” Vygotsky shares this idea.

    3. Cultural Tools and Mediation

    Vygotsky argued that cultural tools, including language, symbols, artifacts, and social practices, mediate learning and development. These tools are products of a particular culture and are used by individuals to think, communicate, and solve problems. Through cultural tools, individuals internalize and construct knowledge, transforming their cognitive processes. This broader perspective is elaborated in Learning Theories for Teachers.

    Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first on the social level, and later on the individual level (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 57).

    Example: A student initially learns how to interpret a graph by watching a teacher model how to read axes and identify patterns; later, the student uses those same conventions independently. Another example is a child using teacher-provided sentence frames (“I predict that…”) before eventually generating their own academic language.

    4. Scaffolding

    Scaffolding is any help, assistance, or support provided by a more competent individual (e.g., a teacher) to facilitate a learner’s understanding and skill development. The scaffolding occurs by gradually adjusting the level of support according to the learner’s needs, and transferring responsibility to the learner as their competence increases. These ideas align with principles of adult learning described in Andragogy

    Example: A teacher initially solves a writing prompt alongside students, then provides sentence starters, and eventually removes supports as students gain confidence. Another example is using guided questions (“What might you try next?”) during problem-solving before stepping back to let the learner take full control.

    Scaffolding, and similar ideas like The Gradual Release of Responsibility Model: Show Me, Help Me, Let Me, also support the kinds of thinking described in Levels of Integration for Critical Thinking.

    5. Private Speech and Self-Regulation

    In his research (see also Types of Questions) Vygotsky noticed that young children often engage in private speech, talking to themselves as they carry out activities.

    He believed private speech is important in self-regulation and cognitive development—a truth clear to parents and teachers but significant here as a data point observed by a neutral researcher. Over time, this private speech becomes internalized and transforms into inner speech, which is used for self-guidance and problem-solving.

    Example: A child assembling a puzzle might whisper, “This piece goes here… no, try the corner,” using speech to guide their actions before eventually solving puzzles silently. Another example is a student verbalizing the steps of a math problem (“First multiply… then add…”) before learning to manage those steps internally.

    References

    • Vygotsky, L. S. (1978).
      Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes.
      Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
    • Bandura, A. (1977).
      Social learning theory.
      Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
    • Knowles, M. S. (1980).
      The modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy to andragogy.
      New York, NY: Cambridge Books.

    TeachThought Staff

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  • Piaget Learning Theory: Stages Of Cognitive Development – TeachThought

    Piaget Learning Theory: Stages Of Cognitive Development

    by TeachThought Staff

    Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was a Swiss psychologist and one of the most influential figures in developmental psychology.

    Piaget is best known for his pioneering work on the cognitive development of children. His research revolutionized our understanding of how children learn and grow intellectually. He proposed that children actively construct their knowledge through stages, each characterized by distinct ways of thinking and understanding the world.

    His theory, ‘Piaget’s stages of cognitive development,’ has profoundly impacted formal education, emphasizing the importance of tailoring teaching methods to a child’s cognitive developmental stage rather than expecting all children to learn similarly.

    Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development outlines a series of developmental stages that children progress through as they grow and mature. This theory suggests that children actively construct their understanding of the world and distinct cognitive abilities and ways of thinking characterize these stages. The four main stages are the sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years), the preoperational stage (2 to 7 years), the concrete operational stage (7 to 11 years), and the formal operational stage (11 years and beyond).

    See also Levels Of Integration Of Critical Thinking

    A Quick Summary Of Piaget’s Stages Of Cognitive Development

    In the sensorimotor stage, infants and toddlers learn about the world through their senses and actions, gradually developing object permanence. The preoperational stage is marked by the emergence of symbolic thought and the use of language, although logical thinking is limited. The concrete operational stage sees children begin to think more logically about concrete events and objects.

    Finally, in the formal operational stage, adolescents and adults can think abstractly and hypothetically, allowing for more complex problem-solving and reasoning. Piaget’s theory has influenced teaching methods that align with students’ cognitive development at different ages and stages of intellectual growth.

    Piagets Stages Of Cognitive Develpment

    Piaget’s Four Stages Of Cognitive Development

    Piaget’s Stage 1: Sensorimotor

    Piaget’s sensorimotor stage is the initial developmental stage, typically occurring from birth to around two years of age, during which infants and toddlers primarily learn about the world through their senses and physical actions.

    Key features of this stage include the development of object permanence, the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are not visible, and the gradual formation of simple mental representations. Initially, infants engage in reflexive behaviors, but as they progress through this stage, they begin to intentionally coordinate their sensory perceptions and motor skills, exploring and manipulating their environment. This stage is marked by significant cognitive growth as children transition from purely instinctual reactions to more purposeful and coordinated interactions with their surroundings.

    One example of Piaget’s sensorimotor stage is when a baby plays peek-a-boo with a caregiver. In the early months, an infant lacks a sense of object permanence. When an object, like the caregiver’s face, disappears from their view, they may act as if it no longer exists. So, when the caregiver covers their face with their hands during a peek-a-boo game, the baby might respond with surprise or mild distress.

    As the baby progresses through the sensorimotor stage, typically around 8 to 12 months, they begin to develop object permanence. When the caregiver hides their face, the baby understands that the caregiver’s face still exists, even though it’s temporarily out of sight. The baby may react with anticipation and excitement when the caregiver uncovers their face, demonstrating their evolving ability to form mental representations and grasp the concept of object permanence.

    This progression in understanding is a key feature of the sensorimotor stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.

    Piaget’s Stage 2: Preoperational

    Piaget’s preoperational stage is the second stage of cognitive development, typically occurring from around 2 to 7 years of age, where children begin to develop symbolic thinking and language skills. During this stage, children can represent objects and ideas using words, images, and symbols, enabling them to engage in pretend play and communicate more effectively.

    However, their thinking is characterized by egocentrism, where they struggle to consider other people’s perspectives, and they exhibit animistic thinking, attributing human qualities to inanimate objects. They also lack the ability for concrete logic and struggle with tasks that require understanding conservation, such as recognizing that the volume of a liquid remains the same when poured into different containers.

    The Preoperational stage represents a significant shift in cognitive development as children transition from basic sensorimotor responses to more advanced symbolic and representational thought.

    One example of Piaget’s preoperational stage is a child’s understanding of ‘conservation.’

    Imagine you have two glasses, one tall and narrow and the other short and wide. You pour the same amount of liquid into both glasses to contain the same volume of liquid. A child in the preoperational stage, when asked whether the amount of liquid is the same in both glasses, might say that the taller glass has more liquid because it looks taller. This demonstrates the child’s inability to understand the principle of conservation, which is the idea that even if the appearance of an object changes (in this case, the shape of the glass), the quantity remains the same.

    In the preoperational stage, children are often focused on the most prominent perceptual aspects of a situation and struggle with more abstract or logical thinking, making it difficult for them to grasp conservation concepts.

    Piaget’s Stage 3: Concrete Operational

    Piaget’s Concrete Operational stage is the third stage of cognitive development, typically occurring from around 7 to 11 years of age, where children demonstrate improved logical thinking and problem-solving abilities, particularly in relation to concrete, tangible experiences.

    During this stage, they can understand concepts such as conservation (e.g., recognizing that the volume of liquid remains the same when poured into different containers), and reversibility (e.g., understanding that an action can be undone). They can perform basic mental operations like addition and subtraction. They become more capable of considering different perspectives, are less egocentric, and can engage in more structured and organized thought processes. Yet, they may still struggle with abstract or hypothetical reasoning, a skill that emerges in the subsequent formal operational stage.

    Imagine two identical containers filled with the same amount of water. You pour the water from one of the containers into a taller, narrower glass and pour the water from the other into a shorter, wider glass. A child in the concrete operational stage would be able to recognize that the two glasses still contain the same amount of water despite their different shapes. Children can understand that the physical appearance of the containers (tall and narrow vs. short and wide) doesn’t change the quantity of the liquid.

    This ability to grasp the concept of conservation is a hallmark of concrete operational thinking, as children become more adept at logical thought related to real, concrete situations.

    Stage 4: The Formal Operational Stage

    Piaget’s Formal Operational stage is the fourth and final stage of cognitive development, typically emerging around 11 years and continuing into adulthood. During this stage, individuals gain the capacity for abstract and hypothetical thinking. They can solve complex problems, think critically, and reason about concepts and ideas unrelated to concrete experiences. They can engage in deductive reasoning, considering multiple possibilities and potential outcomes.

    This stage allows for advanced cognitive abilities like understanding scientific principles, planning for the future, and contemplating moral and ethical dilemmas. It represents a significant shift from concrete to abstract thinking, enabling individuals to explore and understand the world more comprehensively and imaginatively.

    An Example Of The Formal Operation Stage

    One example of Piaget’s Formal Operational stage involves a teenager’s ability to think abstractly and hypothetically.

    Imagine presenting a teenager with a classic moral dilemma, such as the ‘trolley problem.’ In this scenario, they are asked to consider whether it’s morally acceptable to pull a lever to divert a trolley away from a track where it would hit five people, but in doing so, it would then hit one person on another track. A teenager in the formal operational stage can engage in abstract moral reasoning, considering various ethical principles and potential consequences, without relying solely on concrete, personal experiences.

    They might ponder utilitarianism, deontology, or other ethical frameworks, and they can think about the hypothetical outcomes of their decisions.

    This abstract and hypothetical thinking is a hallmark of the formal operational stage, demonstrating the capacity to reason and reflect on complex, non-concrete issues.

    How Teachers Can Use Piaget’s Stages Of Development in The Classroom

    1. Individual Differences

    Understand that children in a classroom may be at different stages of development. Tailor your teaching to accommodate these differences. Provide a variety of activities and approaches to cater to various cognitive levels.

    2. Constructivism

    Recognize that Piaget’s theory is rooted in constructivism, meaning children actively build their knowledge through experiences. Encourage hands-on learning and exploration, as this aligns with Piaget’s emphasis on learning through interaction with the environment.

    3. Scaffolding

    Be prepared to scaffold instruction. Students in the earlier stages (sensorimotor and preoperational) may need more guidance and support. As they progress to concrete and formal operational stages, gradually increase the complexity of tasks and give them more independence.

    4. Concrete Examples

    Students benefit from concrete examples and real-world applications in the concrete operational stage. Use concrete materials and practical problems to help them grasp abstract concepts. 

    5. Active Learning

    Promote active learning. Encourage students to think critically, solve problems, and make connections. Use open-ended questions and encourage discussions that help students move from concrete thinking to abstract reasoning in the formal operational stage.

    6. Developmentally Appropriate Curriculum

    Ensure that your curriculum aligns with the students’ cognitive abilities. Introduce abstract concepts progressively and link new learning to previous knowledge. 

    7. Respect for Differences

    Be patient and respectful of individual differences in development. Some students may grasp concepts earlier or later than others, and that’s entirely normal.

    8. Assessment

    Develop assessment strategies that match the students’ developmental stages. Assess their understanding using methods that are appropriate to their cognitive abilities.

    9. Professional Development

    Teachers can stay updated on the latest child development and education research by attending professional development workshops and collaborating with colleagues to continually refine their teaching practices.

    TeachThought Staff

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  • Mortgage rates are falling. How far will they go?

    Mortgage rates are falling. How far will they go?

    For many prospective homebuyers, the last two years have been brutal as high home prices and mortgage rates produced the most unaffordable housing market since the 2000s bubble.

    Many experts don’t expect drastic improvement soon, but a shift could finally be underway.

    The cost of a 30-year fixed mortgage has fallen from above 7% in May to the low-6% range as of last week. On Wednesday, the Federal Reserve is expected to cut its benchmark interest rate for the first time since it began raising it in 2022 in a bid to fight inflation.

    “I think for the next two years, we are in a world where the pressure is on rates to come down,” said Daryl Fairweather, chief economist with real estate brokerage Redfin.

    How much mortgage rates will decline is unclear.

    The cost for a mortgage is heavily influenced by inflation because institutional investors that buy 30-year mortgages that are packed into bundles don’t want to see the value of their investment eaten away.

    Experts attribute the recent decline in mortgage rates to easing inflation, as well as expectations that because consumer prices are rising less, that will enable the Fed to cut its benchmark interest rate.

    The central bank’s federal funds rate does not directly affect mortgage rates, but it can do so indirectly since it sets a floor on all borrowing costs and provides a signal of how entrenched the Fed thinks inflation is.

    Keith Gumbinger, vice president of research firm HSH.com, said a Fed cut Wednesday may not move mortgage rates much because, to some extent, mortgage investors have already priced in the expectation that rates would decline.

    More cuts, however, are expected in the future.

    Gumbinger said if the Fed achieves a so-called soft landing — taming inflation without causing a recession — he would expect mortgage rates to be in the mid-5% range by this time next year.

    If the economy turns sour, mortgage rates could fall further, though even in that scenario Gumbinger doubted they’d reach the 3% and below range of the pandemic.

    Orphe Divounguy, a senior economist with Zillow, predicted that rates would not even fall to 5.5% but would stay around where they are, arguing that the economy is relatively strong and inflation is unlikely to ease much.

    “I don’t think we are going to see a huge drop, but what we have seen has been great for homebuyers so far,” he said.

    Indeed, even modest drops in borrowing costs can have a big effect on affordability.

    If a buyer puts 20% down on an $800,000 house, the monthly principal and interest payments would equal $4,258 with a 7% mortgage; $3,837 with a 6% mortgage; and $3,436 with a 5% mortgage.

    Whether dropping rates bring lasting relief is another question. Falling borrowing costs could attract a flood of additional buyers and send home prices higher — especially if increased demand isn’t met by an increase in supply.

    For now, the number of homes for sale is increasing modestly, rates are falling and home price growth is slowing.

    In August, home prices across Southern California dipped slightly from the prior month. Values were still up nearly 6% from a year earlier, but that was smaller than the 12-month increase of 9.5% in April, according to data from Zillow.

    In theory, this combination of factors could provide prospective buyers an opportunity to get into the market. Many don’t appear to be doing so.

    According to Redfin, 7.8% fewer homes across the U.S. went into escrow during the four weeks that ended Sept 8 compared with a year earlier.

    In Los Angeles County, pending sales were up 2% from a year ago but down from earlier in the summer.

    Fairweather said buyers might not be jumping in now because they haven’t realized rates have gone down or they are temporarily scared off by recent changes to real estate commission rules.

    Some agents say they are noticing a pickup.

    Costanza Genoese-Zerbi, an L.A.-area Redfin agent, said she’s recently noticed more first-time buyers out shopping, leading to an uptick in multiple offers in entry-level neighborhoods where people are more sensitive to rates.

    Other agents aren’t seeing much of a boost.

    Real estate agent Jake Sullivan, who specializes in the South Bay and San Pedro, has a theory: Homes are still far more expensive than they were just a few years ago.

    Home insurance costs have risen as well.

    “The cost of living is just so high,” Sullivan said.

    Andrew Khouri

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  • The Difference Between Constructivism And Constructionism

    The Difference Between Constructivism And Constructionism

    The Difference Between Constructivism And Constructionism

    by Terry Heick

    While working on the learning theory visual overview, I realized I couldn’t clearly explain the difference between constructivism and constructionism.

    So I did a little research and initially didn’t find much to ease my confusion.

    The Difference Between Constructivism And Constructionism

    Constructivism is–more or less–the same thing. So what’s the difference between constructivism and constructivism?

    Definition of Constructivism

    Constructivism is an educational theory in which learners actively construct their own understanding and knowledge through experiences and reflection on those experiences. It emphasizes the importance of learners’ prior knowledge, social interactions, and contextual learning to build new understanding.

    Definition of Constructionism

    Constructionism extends constructivist ideas by emphasizing learning through creating tangible artifacts, such as models or projects. It promotes the idea that learners construct knowledge most effectively when they are actively involved in making something that is personally meaningful.

    Edith Ackerman, a “Swiss-born American psychologist who explored the interactions between developmental psychology, play, learning and design. A graduate of the University of Geneva, she held permanent or visiting positions at several institutions in the United States and Europe, including the MIT Media Lab,” explained…

    “What is the difference between Piaget’s constructivism and Papert’s “constructionism”? Beyond the mere play on the words, I think the distinction holds, and that integrating both views can enrich our understanding of how people learn and grow. Piaget’s constructivism offers a window into what children are interested in, and able to achieve, at different stages of their development. The theory describes how children’s ways of doing and thinking evolve, and under which circumstance children are more likely to let go of—or hold onto— their currently held views.

    Papert is interested in how learners engage in a conversation with [their own or other people’s] artifacts…and how these conversations facilitate the construction of new knowledge.

    Edith Ackerman, Psychologist

    “Piaget suggests that children have very good reasons not to abandon their worldviews just because someone else, be it an expert, tells them they’re wrong. Papert’s constructionism, in contrast, focuses more on the art of learning, or ‘learning to learn’, and on the significance of making things in learning. Papert is interested in how learners engage in a conversation with [their own or other people’s] artifacts, and how these conversations boost self-directed learning, ultimately facilitating the construction of new knowledge. He stresses the importance of tools, media, and context in human development. Integrating both perspectives illuminates the processes by which individuals come to make sense of their experience, gradually optimizing their interactions with the world.”

    You can read the full pdf here.

    constructionism-constructivism-difference

    So What Is The Difference Between Constructivism And Constructionism?

    Constructivism

    Theory Key Idea: How people learn by constructing their understanding and knowledge of the world through experience and reflection.

    Influential Theorists: Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky

    Key Elements Of Constructivism

    1. Active Learning: Learners actively participate in their learning process.

    2. Knowledge Construction: Learning is about constructing knowledge rather than just absorbing information.

    3. Prior Knowledge: Learners build new knowledge based on existing knowledge.

    4. Social Interaction: Learning often involves social interactions and collaboration.

    5. Contextual Learning: Learning is contextual and situational.

    Constructionism

    Theory Ley Idea: This approach extends constructivist ideas into learning by making, emphasizing the creation of tangible products or artifacts.

    Influential Theorist: Seymour Papert

    Key Elements of Constructionism

    1. Learning by Making: Knowledge construction is most effective when learners are actively involved in making something tangible.

    2. Project-Based Learning: Emphasis on projects that result in a tangible artifact or product.

    3. Reflection and Iteration: Learners reflect on their creations and iterate on their designs.

    4. Computational Thinking: Often involves integrating technology and computational tools.

    5. Personal Relevance: Projects are driven by learners’ interests and personal relevance.

    Summary

    Constructivism: Focuses on the individual’s process of constructing knowledge through experiences and reflection.

    Constructionism: Emphasizes learning by creating tangible artifacts, incorporating technology and personal interests.

    Similarities Between Constructivism and Constructionism

    Same: Active learning and the importance of prior knowledge

    Examples Of Constructivism

    Example 1: Learning in a Classroom

    Scenario: A science class is learning about ecosystems.

    Activity: The teacher sets up stations with various ecosystems (pond, forest, desert) and provides materials such as pictures, plant samples, and soil types.

    Constructivist Approach: Students rotate through the stations, observe the materials, and discuss what they notice about each ecosystem in small groups. They then create a concept map showing how different ecosystem elements interact.

    Outcome: Through active engagement and discussion, students construct an understanding of ecosystems by connecting new information with their prior knowledge.

    Example 2: Child Learning

    Scenario: A child is learning about fractions.

    Activity: The child is given a set of fraction tiles and a recipe to be halved.

    Constructivist Approach: The child uses the fraction tiles to visually and physically manipulate the parts of the recipe, experimenting with different combinations to understand how fractions work.

    Outcome: Through hands-on experience, the child understands fractional relationships by actively engaging with the materials and applying fractions to a real-world scenario.

    Examples of Constructionism

    Example 1: Learning in a Classroom

    Scenario: A middle school technology class is learning about coding.

    Activity: The teacher assigns a project where students create their own video game using a programming platform like Scratch.

    Constructionist Approach: Students brainstorm game ideas, write the code, design characters, and build the game. They test their games, get feedback from peers, and make revisions.

    Outcome: Through creating a tangible product (a video game), students deepen their understanding of coding concepts, logic, and problem-solving.

    Example 2: Child Learning about a science topic

    Scenario: A child is interested in learning about electricity

    Activity: The child is given a simple electronics kit with wires, a battery, and a light bulb.

    Constructionist Approach: The child is asked to build a basic circuit, experimenting with different connections to see what makes the light bulb turn on. They might also try adding a switch or multiple bulbs.

    Outcome: By constructing a working circuit, the child learns about the principles of electricity, circuits, and conductivity through hands-on creation and experimentation.

    Terrell Heick

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  • Are Gen Z Men and Women Really Drifting Apart?

    Are Gen Z Men and Women Really Drifting Apart?

    Judging by recent headlines, young men and women are more politically divided now than ever before. “A new global gender divide is emerging,” the Financial Times data journalist John Burn-Murdoch wrote in a widely cited January article. Burn-Murdoch’s analysis featured several eye-popping graphs that appeared to show a huge ideological rift opening up between young men and young women over the past decade. The implications—for politics, of course, but also for male-female relations and, by extension, the future of the species—were alarming. A New York Times opinion podcast convened to discuss, according to the episode title, “The Gender Split and the ‘Looming Apocalypse of the Developed World.’” The Washington Post editorial board warned, “If attitudes don’t shift, a political dating mismatch will threaten marriage.”

    But nearly as quickly as the theory gained attention, it has come under scrutiny. “For every survey question where you can find a unique gender gap among the youngest age cohort, you can find many other questions where you don’t find that gap,” John Sides, a political-science professor at Vanderbilt University, told me. “Where we started with this whole conversation was that there’s this big thing happening; it’s happening worldwide. Then you just pick at it for a few minutes, and it becomes this really complex story.” Skeptics point out that, at least as far as the United States goes, the claims about a new gender divide rest on selective readings of inconclusive evidence. Although several studies show young men and women splitting apart, at least as many suggest that the gender gap is stable. And at the ballot box, the evidence of a growing divide is hard to find. The Gen Z war of the sexes, in other words, is probably not apocalyptic. It may not even exist at all.

    The gender gap in voting—women to the left, men to the right—has been a fixture of American politics since at least the 1980 presidential election, when, according to exit polls, Ronald Reagan won 55 percent of male voters but only 47 of women.

    Some evidence suggests that the divide has recently widened. In 2023, according to Gallup data, 18-to-29-year-old women were 15 percentage points more likely than men in the same age group to identify as liberal, compared with only seven points a decade ago. Young men’s ideology has remained more stable, but some surveys suggest that young white men in particular have been drifting rightward. The Harvard Youth Poll, for example, found that 33 percent of white men aged 18 to 24 identified as Republican in 2016, compared with 41 percent in 2023. This trend has begun appearing in new-voter-registration data as well, according to Tom Bonier, a Democratic political strategist. “Believe me, as a partisan Democrat, I would prefer that it’s not the case—but it appears to be true,” he told me. “We’re still generally arguing about if it’s happening, which to me is silly. The conversation hasn’t moved to why.”

    Ronald Brownstein: Is Gen Z coming for the GOP?

    Why indeed? Several factors present themselves for consideration. One is social-media-induced gender polarization. (Think misogynistic “manosphere” influencers and women who talk about how “all men are trash.”) Another, as always, is Donald Trump. Twenty-something-year-old women seemed repelled by Trump’s ascendance in 2016, John Della Volpe, who heads the Harvard Youth Poll, told me. They were much more likely to vote for Hillary Clinton. Then there’s the #MeToo movement, which emerged in 2017, soon after Trump took office. Daniel Cox, a senior fellow at the American Enterprise Institute, a free-market-conservative think tank, argues that it durably shaped young women’s political consciousness. A 2022 poll found that nearly three-quarters of women under 30 say they support #MeToo, the highest of any age group. The Supreme Court’s decision to overturn Roe v. Wade also seems to have been a turning point. Going into the 2022 midterm election, 61 percent of young women said abortion was a “critical” concern, according to a survey conducted by AEI. “Young women increasingly believe that what happens to any woman in the United States impacts their lives and experiences as well,” Cox told me. “That became really salient after Roe was overturned.” Gen Z women are more likely than Generation X or Baby Boomer women—though slightly less likely than Millennial women—to say that they have been discriminated against because of their gender at some point in their life.

    Not so fast, say young men. Gen Z men are also more likely than older generations to say that they’ve been discriminated against based on gender. “There’s this kind of weird ping-pong going on between Gen Z men and women about who’s really struggling, who’s really the victim,” Richard Reeves, a senior fellow at the Brookings Institution, told me. Reeves, who founded the American Institute for Boys and Men, argues that although men still dominate the highest levels of society in the U.S., those on the lower rungs are doing worse than ever. They are far less likely than women to go to college or find a good job, and far more likely to end up in prison or dead. These young men feel—rightly, in Reeves’s view—that mainstream institutions and the Democratic Party haven’t addressed their problems. And, in the aftermath of #MeToo, some seem to believe that society has turned against men. Survey data indicate that Gen Z men are much less likely to identify as feminists than Millennial men are, and about as likely as middle-aged men. “I really do worry that we’re trending toward a bit of a women’s party and a men’s party in politics,” Reeves told me.

    But if young men and women really were drifting apart politically, you would expect to see evidence on Election Day. And here’s where the theory starts showing cracks. The Cooperative Election Study, a national survey administered by YouGov, found that nearly 68 percent of 18-to-29-year-old men voted for Joe Biden in the 2020 presidential election, compared with about 70 percent of women in that age group—the same percentage gap as in 2008. (The split was larger—nearly seven points—in 2016, when Trump’s personal behavior toward women was especially salient.) Catalist, a progressive firm that models election results based on voter-file data, found that the gender divide was roughly the same for all age groups in recent elections. In the 2022 midterms, according to Pew’s analysis of validated voters, considered the gold standard of postelection polling, the youngest voters had the smallest gender divide, and overwhelmingly supported Democrats.

    Richard V. Reeves: Redshirt the boys

    Many of the polls that show a widening gender divide ask about ideology. But research shows that many people don’t have a clear idea of what the labels mean. Gallup, whose data partly inspired the gender-gap frenzy, notes that only about half of Democrats identify as liberal. Ten percent describe themselves as conservative, and the remainder say their views are moderate. The ideological lines are only slightly less scrambled among self-identified Republicans. “Everything here hinges on what characteristics or questions we are trying to measure,” Sides told me. “When you ask people if they identify as liberal or as a feminist, you learn whether people believe that label describes them. But you didn’t ask how they define that label.” People might dislike the term liberal but still support, say, abortion access and high government spending. Indeed, 2020 polling data from Nationscape, which assesses people’s positions on individual issues, indicated that young men and women are no more divided than older generations. In every age group, for example, women are more in favor of banning assault rifles and providing universal health care than men are, by a comparable margin.

    Or perhaps the unique Gen Z gender divide just hasn’t shown up electorally yet. Most 2024 election polling doesn’t break down different age groups by gender—and even if it did, trying to draw firm conclusions would be foolish. Twenty-somethings are just hard to study. Young people are less engaged in politics, with high rates of independent and unaffiliated voters. Their worldviews are still malleable. Many of them are reluctant to answer questions, especially over the phone. Under those circumstances, even high-quality polls show wildly, even implausibly divergent possibilities for the youth vote. A recent USA Today/Suffolk University poll found that, in a hypothetical 2024 rematch, Trump beat out Biden among registered voters under 35—an almost-unheard-of shift within four years. In October, a New York Times/Siena poll suggested that the youngest generation is equally split between Trump and Biden, whereas last month’s Times survey showed Biden winning young voters by double digits even as he lost ground overall.

    Whatever is going on inside all of those young minds, the old people studying them have yet to figure it out. The biggest chasm, as always, may be not between young men and young women, but between young people and everyone else.

    Rose Horowitch

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  • The Pedagogy Of John Dewey: A Summary

    The Pedagogy Of John Dewey: A Summary

    by TeachThought Staff

    What did John Dewey believe about education?

    What were his views on experiential and interactive learning and their role in teaching and learning?

    As always, there’s a lot to understand. John Dewey (1859–1952) developed extraordinarily influential educational and social theories that had a lasting influence on psychology, pedagogy, and political philosophy, among other fields. Stanford University explained that because Dewey “typically took a genealogical approach that couched his own view within the larger history of philosophy, one may also find a fully developed metaphilosophy in his work.”

    One way to think of his ideas, then, is unifying and comprehensive, gathering otherwise distinct fields and bringing them together in service of the concept of teaching children how to live better in the present rather than speculatively preparing them for a future we can’t predict.

    See also 15 Self-Guided Reading Responses For Non-Fiction Texts

    Major Works By John Dewey

    My Pedagogic Creed (1897)

    The Primary-Education Fetich (1898)

    The School and Society The Child and the Curriculum Democracy and Education Schools of Tomorrow (1915)

    Experience and Education (1938)

    See also John Dewey Quotes About Education, Teaching, And Learning

    What Did John Dewey Believe About Teaching And Learning?

    What was the pedagogy of John Dewey? Put briefly, Dewey believed that learning was socially constructed, and that brain-based pedagogy (not his words) should place children, rather than curriculum and institutions, at its center. Effective learning required students to use previous (and prevailing) experiences to create new meaning–that is, to ‘learn.’

    Most of Dewey’s work is characterized by his views on education itself, including its role in citizenship and democracy. But in terms of pedagogy, he is largely known for his emphasis on experiential learning, social learning, and a basic Constructivist approach to pedagogy, not to mention consistent support for the idea of self-knowledge, inquiry-based learning, and even self-directed learning, saying, “To prepare him for the future life means to give him command of himself” and considered education to be a “process of living and not a preparation for future living.”

    Further, his philosophy on pedagogy would align strongly with the gradual release of responsibility model that while still in need of a ‘more knowledgeable other’ (the teacher) would create learning experiences designed to result in the autonomy and self-efficacy of a student as they master content.

    What Dewey believed about ‘pedagogy’ depends on what parts of his work you want to unpack, but broadly speaking, he was a constructivist who pushed for a ‘human’ education experience that leveraged communal constructivism and the role of inquiry and curiosity in the active participation of a student in their own education.

    Further, his social constructivist theories pre-date those of Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky (who are arguably more well-known for these ideas), and he lamented even around the turn of the century the problems with ‘traditional’ approaches to pedagogy that focused on institutional curriculum, instructional practices, and assessment patterns.

    Wikipedia’s entry on Dewey provides a succinct overview of his work: “Dewey continually argues that education and learning are social and interactive processes, and thus the school itself is a social institution through which social reform can and should take place. In addition, he believed that students thrive in an environment where they are allowed to experience and interact with the curriculum, and all students should have the opportunity to take part in their own learning.”

    “He argues that in order for education to be most effective, content must be presented in a way that allows the student to relate the information to prior experiences, thus deepening the connection with this new knowledge. In order to rectify this dilemma, Dewey advocated for an educational structure that strikes a balance between delivering knowledge while also taking into account the interests and experiences of the student. He notes that “the child and the curriculum are simply two limits which define a single process. Just as two points define a straight line, so the present standpoint of the child and the facts and truths of studies define instruction” (Dewey, 1902, p. 16). It is through this reasoning that Dewey became one of the most famous proponents of hands-on learning or experiential education….”

    Education is a social process. According to the creed, it should not be used for the purposes of preparation for living in the future. Dewey said, “I believe that education, therefore, is a process of living and not a preparation for future living.” We can build a child’s self-esteem in not only the classroom but in all aspects of his or her life.”

    TeachThought Staff

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  • One Theory Shows The Boy and The Heron Might not Be Miyazaki's Last Film

    One Theory Shows The Boy and The Heron Might not Be Miyazaki's Last Film

    The Boy and the Heron has attracted widespread attention due to the chance that it might be Hayao Miyazaki’s last film, but one interpretation of the movie might mean there’s hope for one more work from the acclaimed director.

    In an interview we conducted with the film’s English dub director Michael Sinterniklaas, the illustrious voice actor and director made mention of a theory brought to his attention by Mark Chang, the production manager at NYAV Post’s New York office.

    “[D]uring production, Mark Chang — he’s my production manager in our New York Office — he said ‘Wait: When (the Tower Master) presents the blocks to Mahito, there are thirteen, and this is his twelfth movie.’”

    The theory does hold water, as the Tower Master does indeed present Mahito 13 blocks in the film which he has used to create the world around them. There are likewise 12 films that Miyazaki has directed with The Boy and The Heron being the 12th of the bunch, meaning there could be a 13th film he wishes to make before he’s done.

    It also backs up earlier claims made by Studio Ghibli executive Junichi Nishioka to CBC back in September. During an interview, Nishioka said that Miyazaki is not done making films, and is already working on ideas for his next movie. Miyazaki hasn’t confirmed or denied these statements though, so take all of this with at least a few grains of salt.

    Nevertheless, it’s good news for Ghibli fans as many viewers have interpreted The Boy and The Heron as more of a final message from the acclaimed director. Throughout the film, themes of moving on and letting go of what has come and gone are front and center. This is particularly true for the scenes involving the Tower Master, who is an aging creator who no longer has the energy or ability to craft and mold everything that exists around him.

    You make your own interpretations by seeing The Boy and The Heron in theaters either subbed or dubbed. For more on all things Ghibli, consider checking out our ranking of every Studio Ghibli movie.

    About the author

    Keenan McCall

    Keenan has been a nerd from an early age, watching anime and playing games for as long as I can remember. Since obtaining a bachelor’s degree in journalism back in 2017, he has written thousands of articles covering gaming, animation, and entertainment topics galore.

    Keenan McCall

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  • The 6 Items French Girls Wear to Stay Warm and Still Look Cool

    The 6 Items French Girls Wear to Stay Warm and Still Look Cool

    Les Francaises have a knack for making everything look as easy as un, deux, trois. From their no-makeup makeup to the breathy way they draw out their ouis, French women seem to have being effortless cornered. This is particularly true in winter, when looking cute can feel like a Herculean task. Even at subzero temperatures, French women move about unbothered, which felt novel to this Californian; the last thing I feel like doing when it’s cold and gray out is putting together a look. 

    But the French have it down to a science! This is partly due to how they shop. French women typically invest in a few good pieces per season, favoring timeless pieces over au courant trends. A well-cut coat. Sticking to long-lasting durable fabrics that drape well. After my first winter in Paris, I picked up a few tips to make cold-weather dressing more fun—as well as a shearling coat and pair of camel riding boots that I still own today (after all, practice makes perfect.) 

    Follow along, and we’ll meet at the intersection of cozy and chic.

    Perveen Singh

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