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Bleach has a reputation for going scorched earth on bacteria. But not everyone is comfortable with using it; bleach can interact dangerously with other common chemicals and has to be handled with care. For those reasons, many people avoid it altogether. 

That may not be a bad strategy. Experts say that although there are a handful of instances when bleach is useful, it doesn’t need to be used as a regular cleaning product in one’s home.

Here’s what to know about how best to use bleach and when easier-to-handle alternatives work better.

What is bleach, anyway?

Bleach, the chemical compound sodium hypochlorite, is a disinfectant. There’s a difference between cleaning and disinfecting, says Katie Sullivan, director of issue communications at the American Cleaning Institute, an industry trade group. “Cleaning is the physical removal of dirt, germs, and debris by scrubbing, washing, and rinsing,” she says. Disinfecting involves killing any remaining germs on a surface after it’s been cleaned.

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When routinely cleaning your home, soap and warm water is almost always adequate, says Rebecca Fuoco, director of science communications at the Green Science Policy Institute, a nonprofit that advocates for safer chemical use. “The bottom line is that you often don’t need to disinfect your home,” she says. “You just need to clean your home.”

When to use bleach

There are a few instances in which bleach is worth using. Fuoco says disinfecting with bleach is warranted for sanitizing surfaces contaminated with bodily fluids, feces, or vomit from someone who was sick. 

Hot, soapy water is generally sufficient for cleaning up everyday messes on kitchen countertops, cutting boards, and kitchen sinks, says Taylor Dunivin, a toxicologist with the Environmental Working Group, an environmental health nonprofit. Very diluted bleach can be used to disinfect surfaces where food with potentially harmful bacteria, like raw chicken, was prepared, but Dunivin recommends using other food-contact sanitizers instead. She adds that you should avoid using general home disinfectant products that aren’t made for food surfaces as they can leave behind a harmful residue.

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Bleach isn’t even necessary or recommended for cleaning your bathroom or shower. “If you notice a little mold in your shower, you can scrub the area with detergent and water—you don’t need to use bleach,” Dunivin says. For toilets, she recommends using cleaning products with lactic acid.

Fatigue is different from simply being tired. When you’re tired, you can sleep, and the sensation goes away. But fatigue goes deeper and starts to interfere with a person’s everyday activities. “Fatigue is this draining, exhausting feeling,” says Leorey Saligan, a researcher who studies the condition at Rutgers University. “It’s not just physical, but also psychological and cognitive.”

For people dealing with chronic illnesses like cancer, multiple sclerosis, or Long COVID, fatigue can be a common experience. If it lingers for weeks, you should check with a doctor to rule out medical conditions like anemia or heart problems. 

But many people will also experience short-term fatigue over their lifetimes—for  physical, mental, or psychological reasons. Here’s what you can do about it when it strikes.

Get moving

Regular exercise like walking, light strength training, and yoga is one of the most powerful ways to fight fatigue, says Saligan. “Physical exercise has really been very effective in reducing the severity and impact of fatigue,” he says. But there’s a catch: if you’re fatigued, it’s really hard to want to push yourself physically. 

Starting small can help. One 2008 study published in the journal Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics found that low-intensity exercise reduced fatigue symptoms by 65% in people who didn’t exercise—a greater reduction than with medium-intensity exercise. Experts advise avoiding exercise late in the day, when it can keep you awake into the night.

Fill your water bottle

Drinking enough water can improve focus and blood flow, all while making it easier for your body to move. Aim for at least a liter a day, says Jodi Stookey, a nutrition epidemiologist who studies hydration. It’s especially important to drink water in the morning, because you need to rehydrate after a long night of rest.

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Even mild dehydration can lead to feelings of lethargy and fatigue. In a 2019 study, dehydrated college students improved their short-term memory, attention, and reaction times an hour after drinking 1.5 liters of water.

Rest regularly—at night

Paradoxically, rest can be challenging for people with true fatigue. That’s because resting excessively can actually make fatigue worse. Instead of taking daytime naps, which can disrupt sleep at night, aim for a regular sleep schedule. In order to have good sleep hygiene, make your room cool and dark. Try to limit screens before bedtime, and use a calming routine to wind down. Keep alcohol and caffeine hours from bedtime as well.

Brew a coffee

Most people are aware that java can give them a jolt. But studies have also shown that consuming caffeine before a mentally tiring task reduces the feeling of cognitive fatigue. Different studies have found effects between 40 and 300 milligrams daily—which is between half a cup and four cups of coffee. Caffeine can also help fight physical fatigue, but too much can also cause energy crashes and more fatigue, so experts recommend not drinking more than four cups per day.

Get into nature

Green spaces are restorative and calming, but they also can fight fatigue. Several studies have documented how being exposed to nature can help cognitive fatigue. That’s because being in natural places enhances working memory, attention control, and cognitive flexibility. Other studies show that people tend to recover from fatigue more quickly when they’re exposed to natural settings like forests or parks.

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Listen to your favorite music

A 2025 research review published in PLoS One found that when people who were cognitively fatigued listened to music during memory tasks, they were less likely to make mistakes than people who did the task without listening to music. Researchers believe that’s because music activates the brain’s dopaminergic system: the network of neurons that produces and releases the neurotransmitter dopamine, says Martin Behrens, a researcher at the University of Applied Sciences for Sport and Management Potsdam in Germany, who studies the mechanisms of fatigue and their role in human performance in health and disease. But research in this area is still early, he adds.

Vitamin D is often called the “sunshine vitamin” because it is made by the body after the skin receives direct sun exposure. This fat-soluble vitamin is also available from certain foods such as fatty fish, mushrooms, egg yolks, and fortified dairy products, but exposure to ultraviolet B (UVB) light is a major contributor to people’s vitamin D stores.

Given that there are fewer hours of daylight and less intense sunlight during the winter in many parts of the world, it can be hard to maintain sufficient vitamin D levels in your body. A 2023 study from Slovenia found that 63% of adults who were not taking vitamin D supplements had insufficient vitamin D levels during the winter, compared to only 6% in the summer.

“When you are bundled up from head to toe and have limited sun exposure in the winter months in the northern hemisphere, your body is not absorbing as much vitamin D as it may in warmer conditions,” says Kelsey Higgins, a nutrition support dietitian at the Vanderbilt University Medical Center.

Adequate amounts of vitamin D are important for overall health and well-being. Besides promoting calcium and phosphorus absorption, which are critical for building and maintaining bone density, “vitamin D plays a role in immune function, it decreases inflammation, and it helps with muscle coordination,” says Carla Bouwmeester, a clinical professor in the department of pharmacy and health systems sciences at Northeastern University.

In kids, vitamin D is essential for preventing rickets, a bone-softening disease. And vitamin D has been found to have mood-regulation benefits in adults.

How much vitamin D is enough?

“Some people can meet some or all of their vitamin D needs through exposure to sunlight,” says Dr. Elizabeth Ko, an associate clinical professor at the David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA and medical director of the UCLA Health Integrative Medicine Collaborative. “However, the season, time of day, length of day, cloud cover, smog, skin melatonin content, and sunscreen use are among the factors that affect UV radiation exposure and vitamin D synthesis.”

While guidance about sufficient intake of vitamin D doesn’t change with the seasons, your body’s level of vitamin D can, Ko says.

As far as dietary sources go, the recommended intake of vitamin D depends on your age: 600 I.U. per day for kids and adults up to age 70, and 800 I.U. per day for adults ages 71 and older.

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The trouble is, “there aren’t a lot of robust food sources of vitamin D,” says Joan Salge Blake, a clinical professor of nutrition at Boston University and host of the nutrition and health podcast Spot On! Vitamin D is present in fatty fish (such as trout, salmon, sardines, and tuna), beef liver, egg yolks, some mushrooms, and fortified foods such as cow’s milk, some plant-based milks, and breakfast cereals—but few other foods have it.

Certain people are at an elevated risk for developing vitamin D insufficiency all year long. These include older adults (partly because the skin’s ability to synthesize vitamin D decreases with age) and people with certain medical conditions such as celiac disease, Crohn’s disease, ulcerative colitis, and other disorders that interfere with the body’s ability to absorb dietary fat. People who have had gastric bypass surgery can also become deficient in vitamin D, says Bouwmeester.

People with darker skin are also at risk for low vitamin D because the melanin pigment in their skin reduces their ability to produce vitamin D from sun exposure, Bouwmeester says. 

And some medications—including corticosteroids (like prednisone) and certain weight-loss drugs (like Orlistat)—can reduce vitamin D absorption.

To supplement or not to supplement?

“In the winter months, we don’t typically have enough sun exposure to make vitamin D,” says Jacqueline Vernarelli, a public health nutritionist and associate professor at Sacred Heart University. “This means that in the winter we need to make sure we are getting more from foods or supplements.”

If you don’t typically consume sufficient amounts of vitamin-D-rich foods, you may want to consider taking a vitamin D supplement. Your best bet is to “get your vitamin D level checked by your doctor,” advises Salge Blake. A simple blood test can measure your body’s vitamin D levels. Generally, blood levels of 20 ng/mL are considered sufficient for most people.

“If it’s low, you can discuss taking a supplement,” Salge Blake says. If you decide to take a supplement, have your vitamin D level checked again after a few months “to make sure it’s where it needs to be,” she adds.

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In supplement form, vitamin D comes as either vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol) or vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol). While both forms can raise blood levels of vitamin D, vitamin D3 increases blood levels of vitamin D “to a greater extent than vitamin D2 and can maintain those higher levels for longer periods of time,” says Ko.

You may have seen people on social media spritzing hypochlorous acid on their faces, bedding, countertops, and dog blankets. They say the substance can treat skin conditions, like acne, and sanitize surfaces. 

Does it live up to the hype? Doctors say they’re on to something. 

Hypochlorous acid, or HOCl, is a weak acid that your body naturally produces on its own. But it’s also an ingredient in several skincare sprays and cleaning products. 

The antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties of HOCl mean it can fight germs, calm the skin, and treat wounds without being irritating, says Dr. Howard Sobel, a cosmetic dermatologic surgeon at Lenox Hill Hospital in New York City. “It’s powerful, but gentle.”

Here’s what to know about hypochlorous acid, its benefits, and how and when to use it. 

What is hypochlorous acid? 

Your body’s white blood cells naturally produce hypochlorous acid as part of its immune system response to bacteria or other pathogens, says Dr. Marisa Garshick, a dermatologist in New York City. 

But HOCl is also manufactured, with scientists using electrolysis to break down saltwater solutions, according to the Cleveland Clinic. It’s now mass-produced and found in skincare products, including sprays and serums, as well as disinfectants. 

“It is a powerful antimicrobial agent capable of killing bacteria, viruses, and fungi, and also has anti-inflammatory properties,” Garshick says. “Due to its effective yet gentle nature, it has been used in various medical and skincare applications, including wound care, disinfecting, and treating skin conditions.” 

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While it’s having a trendy moment, HOCl has been safely used as a disinfectant and skin treatment for more than a century, adds Dr. Brintha Vasagar, a family physician in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. It also gained attention a few years ago for its potential to kill the virus that causes COVID on surfaces. 

As a weak acid, it can kill bacteria and viruses and quell inflammation without irritating the skin. It’s also safe as a mild disinfectant for surfaces and other household items, Vasagar says. 

The skincare benefits of hypochlorous acid 

Its antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties eliminate bacteria, viruses, and fungi on the skin, which can kill infections and treat conditions like acne and eczema, Garshick says. 

“At the same time, it calms irritation, reduces redness, and helps repair the skin’s barrier,” she explains. “This dual action is important because it creates a balanced environment on the skin that supports overall skin health and healing without causing irritation.” 

Garshick suggests using HOCl post-workout to cleanse the skin and calm inflammation caused by sweat or friction, or as part of your daily skincare routine.

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The acid treats skin issues without disrupting the skin barrier, Sobel says. Its gentle nature means it’s often well-tolerated by people with sensitive skin, Garshick adds. 

“It’s especially valuable if you can’t tolerate traditional acne treatments, have inflammatory skin conditions, need wound-healing support, or want a simple, effective product for sensitive skin,” she says. 

Are there other benefits? 

Along with skincare, HOCl can be used for basic wound care and disinfecting surfaces, Vasagar says. 

The acid can speed up wound healing and repair skin damage all while being gentle on the skin, Garshick says. She also recommends it for burns and bug bites. 

Small studies have found that HOCl can kill bacteria and viruses on surfaces, and it’s safer on the skin and around pets and children than stronger chemicals like bleach, Vasagar says. An older study from 2007 suggests that HOCl can kill some bacteria more quickly than bleach, too. 

As a disinfectant, HOCl can be used on household surfaces, objects, and textiles. 

Are there any downsides to hypochlorous acid?

HOCl is safe and easily tolerated for most people, Garshick says. Still, she suggests being cautious when using any new product. 

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Some people could have an allergic reaction to it, says Vasagar, who recommends testing the product on a small patch of skin before using it on large areas of your body. Strong HOCl concentrations or products with fragrance or additional ingredients could irritate the skin.

The acid can be drying for some people’s skin, Sobel adds, and some find it to be mildly tingly when they apply it.   

How to use hypochlorous acid

Apply HOCl after cleansing your skin but before serums or moisturizers, Garshick says. Spray it on clean skin, and let it dry before applying the next products. For liquid solutions, dab it onto clean skin with a cotton pad. 

In the dead of winter, opening your windows might seem like the opposite of a wellbeing hack. But in Germany, it’s a standard practice called lüften: airing out one’s home every day, even in the bitter cold. 

Lüften, which translates to “airing out” in German, is common practice because the country’s homes are very well-insulated, and opening windows is thought to reduce mold, humidity, pollutants, and odors. In the wintertime, some Germans even practice stoss lüften, which translates to “shock ventilation,” and involves opening all of a house’s windows completely for five or 10 minutes. The German tradition is becoming trendy in the U.S.—at least on social media—with TikTokers partaking in the practice and nicknaming it “burping” their home. 

But does lüften actually benefit your health? Experts overwhelmingly say yes. 

People are often more concerned about outdoor air quality than indoor air quality, says Ian Cull, founder and chief science officer at Indoor Science, an indoor air quality consulting and training company. But, he says, “in general, the air quality is worse inside homes than you would find in the outdoor air.” Everything from air fresheners, candles, and scented wax melts to gas stoves, dust, new furniture, and cleaning products can contaminate indoor air. 

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Sometimes people are the sources of contamination. When humans are indoors, they are always shedding microscopic particles, says Mark Hernandez, a professor of biomedical engineering and director of the aerobiology and disinfection lab at the University of Colorado Boulder. “We have our own little microbiome,” he says. “We continually shed our skin, we shed our hair. It doesn’t bother most of us most of the time, unless you have something like asthma or severe allergies. When we open the windows, essentially that dilutes and removes whatever we shed.”

Some people are more sensitive to chemicals and allergens in the air than others. “Sometimes it’s hard to really grasp the impact of indoor air quality because people can experience it so differently,” he says. But the COVID pandemic highlighted the importance of indoor air quality. “Air quality is an important piece of a healthy lifestyle,” Cull says. “It’s not just about exercising, eating right, and getting good sleep. Now more than ever, indoor air quality is part of that conversation.”

Here are some of the benefits of airing out your home.

Better sleep 

Research suggests that sleeping with the windows open helps people fall asleep more quickly and sleep more soundly, Cull says. “Sleeping with your windows open has been shown to have a beneficial effect.”

But this is only a worthwhile practice if you live somewhere relatively quiet. One 2021 study published in Science and Technology for the Built Environment found that people snored and woke up significantly less when they slept with the windows open. However, some people reported sleeping worse because they were awoken by outdoor noises. 

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Lynelle Schneeberg, a sleep psychologist at Yale University, believes practicing lüften right before bed could help people get more restful slumber at night. “You know that feeling when you’ve washed your sheets and they’re so clean and fresh?” she says. With lüften, “it’s almost like you’re giving yourself that feeling on a daily basis. So I think it’s really a great idea.”

Improved mental health 

There’s ample research being done right now on indoor air quality in educational settings, Hernandez says. One 2025 study, for example, found that classrooms with higher concentrations of carbon dioxide (due to more students and less ventilation) were linked to lower cognitive test scores. 

“In terms of wellness, cognition, and worker performance, there’s an emerging literature that says we need fresh air to be OK and to be fully functioning in our respective indoor environments,” Hernandez says. Lüften also has potential mood benefits. One 2025 study published in BMC Geriatrics found that older adults who lived somewhere with better indoor air ventilation were less likely to be depressed compared to older adults with less indoor air ventilation. 

Laurence Chan, assistant professor of medical psychology in the psychiatry department at Columbia University Irving Medical Center, believes lüften offers a unique opportunity for mindfulness, especially for people who are sedentary, spend a lot of time indoors, or are prone to mood disorders or anxiety. 

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“It’s an opportunity for us to take a break from whatever activity we’ve been focusing on and directing our attention to,” he says. “When we feel that fresh air, maybe that rush of cold, we become more attuned to our five senses. How are we feeling? What are we thinking? I think what fresh air offers us is a moment to be present and take a break.”

A handful of exceptions 

“It’s great to ventilate homes,” Cull says, but there are a few exceptions. For example, if the outdoor air quality is worse than the indoor air quality, “having your windows open could have a negative effect.” This can happen during a wildfire, a dust storm, a high pollen day, a high mold spore day, in an area with industrial pollution, or in an urban area during rush hour. “You have to be very mindful about when you’re opening windows and in what situation,” he says. 

You might associate compression socks with your grandparents or a hospital setting. But the stockings have become a trendy travel and wellness accessory among social-media users—and doctors say they offer several health benefits.

Compression socks are “basically long, elastic socks that are made to apply extra pressure around your legs,” and this reduces swelling and improves blood flow, explains Dr. Michael Shen, medical director of adult primary care and geriatrics at NYC Health + Hospitals/Woodhull in Brooklyn. They’re often recommended for people with vein-related conditions, but they can be useful in other situations, too. 

Here’s what doctors want you to know about compression socks. 

What are compression socks, and how do they work? 

Compression socks, also known as graduated compression stockings, are “specially knit socks designed to apply the most pressure at the ankle and gradually less pressure as you move up the leg,” says Dr. Sanjiv Lakhanpal, a cardiovascular and thoracic surgeon and president and CEO of the Center for Vein Restoration in Greenbelt, Maryland. 

“That gradient is the key feature that distinguishes medical-grade compression from regular tight socks,” he explains. 

The socks are designed to help blood flow more easily in the legs, says Dr. Hugh Pabarue, a physician and vein specialist at Metro Vein Centers in Macomb, Michigan.

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They work by gently squeezing the veins and surrounding tissues in the legs, Pabarue says. “This support helps vein valves work more effectively and improves the natural muscle-pump action of the calves when you walk. As a result, blood circulates better, pressure in the veins is reduced, and legs often feel less heavy or tired.”

The gentle pressure improves blood flow up to the heart, preventing it from pooling in the lower legs, Lakhanpal adds. The compression also improves fluid movement, including lymphatic drainage. Both mechanisms help minimize swelling. 

“You can think of it as helping squeeze some of the fluid back up the leg,” Shen says. 

What are the benefits of compression socks? 

The gentle pressure that compression socks provide has been shown to offer numerous benefits, including reducing leg swelling; relieving leg aching, heaviness, or tiredness; improving discomfort during extended periods of sitting or standing; minimizing symptoms of varicose veins or chronic venous insufficiency, including itching or pain; and preventing leg ulcers.

While compression socks improve circulation, reduce the strain on veins, and manage swelling and other symptoms, Pabarue says, they won’t necessarily help repair damaged veins.

“For many people, they are an important part of maintaining long-term vein health and preventing symptoms from getting worse,” he says. But they “work best alongside regular movement and exercise, staying hydrated, elevating the legs when possible, and wearing supportive shoes.” 

Are there any downsides? 

Some people consider compression socks uncomfortable because they can feel too tight, Shen says. 

When compression socks don’t fit well, they can irritate the skin, cause skin indentations, or roll down and create a tight band, or “tourniquet effect,” around the leg, which could impair circulation, Lakhanpal says. 

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People with peripheral arterial disease, diabetes with neuropathy, or severely reduced blood flow should avoid compression socks or at least talk to their doctors before wearing them, he says. Individuals with arthritis, nerve problems, or fragile skin should also speak to a physician first, Pabarue adds.  

When should you wear them? 

Compression socks are a good option for people who often experience leg swelling or discomfort, or who spend a lot of time sitting or standing, such as during a long-haul flight or work shift on their feet, Pabarue says. 

Pregnant women with vein symptoms can also benefit from compression socks under their doctor’s guidance, Lakhanpal says. Individuals with varicose veins, chronic venous insufficiency, vein-related leg swelling, or a history of venous leg ulcers are also a good fit for compression socks. 

Compression socks are also used in medical settings to reduce the risk of blood clots following surgery or during hospitalizations, Lakhanpal says. 

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“Some people benefit from wearing them every day, while others only need them during certain activities, like travel or long workdays,” Pabarue says. If you wear compression socks all day, Shen suggests removing them at night and elevating your legs “so that gravity can help bring the blood out of the legs and reduce the swelling.”

Some compression socks are marketed to runners and other athletes, claiming they can reduce soreness and shorten recovery time. However, there isn’t convincing scientific evidence on these claims, according to Harvard Medical School.

Wearing compression socks likely isn’t necessary for those without vein-related medical conditions or people who aren’t at increased risk for these issues, Lakhanpal says. 

How to choose compression socks

Proper fit is key, Pabarue says. Compression socks “should feel snug and supportive, but not painful or overly tight.” 

Ideally, you feel the most pressure around your ankle and “less and less as it goes up the leg,” Shen says. Compression socks should feel like a “firm hug,” with no numbness, tingling, pinching behind the knee, or digging in, Lakhanpal says. You also shouldn’t have to struggle to put them on. 

Compression socks aren’t one-size-fits-all, Lakhanpal says. They come in different compression levels, measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg), which is displayed on the product label. Lower compression is 20-30 mmHg; over 40 mmHg is on the higher end, Shen explains. Pabarue adds that lighter support is recommended for daily wear, while stronger support is for those with vein conditions. 

For several years, I’ve lived in a part of Maryland where it’s common for other cars to mosey into my lane and then drive well under the speed limit. This agitates me and my lead foot. When stuck behind them, my heart rate speeds up as if compensating for the slow wheels. Sometimes I even shout and honk. Of course, the driver ahead never realizes the error of their ways, accelerates, or reacts at all. Torturing myself this way is pointless, yet my impatience endures.

Impatience is a deeply human problem with a long documented history—it’s a theme in ancient Buddhist texts and Roman meditations—but it’s probably even more of a struggle in our fast-paced, on-demand culture. Today, situations that involve waiting are viewed as glitches rather than inevitable parts of life, says Sarah Schnitker, a psychologist at Baylor University. We’ve come to believe technology can and should make delays obsolete—that we’re entitled to instant gratification.

Such expectations frequently collide with reality, causing frustration such as conflicts on the road and career angst. In the long term, impatience can take a toll on our bodies, minds, and overall health. But there are specific ways to curb it—and, researchers who study patience say you’ll be happier for doing so.

Types of patience

Patience is a virtue, but it’s also a practical strategy—both a noun and a verb. Schnitker researches three kinds of it. One is “micro-patience,” or dealing with daily hassles like Wi-Fi outages and basement leaks. Another is “life-hardships patience”: major obstacles like chronic health conditions that interfere with daily routines, making them slow and tedious. 

A third type is “interpersonal patience,” or being able to endure holdups caused by other people, like slow-mo drivers, flaky coworkers, or young kids who require 15 minutes to put on their shoes before leaving the house.

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There’s a lot of overlap among these types, says Kate Sweeny, professor of psychology at the University of California, Riverside. “People tell me they’re fine in all situations except traffic, and I say, ‘Well, you’re not actually fine in those other situations,’” she says.

This means that practicing patience in one domain could translate to increased patience in another. For example, if I cultivate patience behind the wheel, it might also enhance this quality in areas of life that are more important than getting where I’m going three minutes earlier.

The benefits of practicing patience

Schnitker has found that patience can lead to more persistence and progress toward key long-term goals. In one of her studies, people rated their own levels of patience over several weeks while working toward such goals. Those who rated themselves highly on patience tried harder—and found greater meaning in doing so—over the following two weeks.

One reason for this effect is that when people maintain calm in the face of regular obstacles, they’re less likely to burn out before achieving their aspirations—and burnout is a bigger dream-killer than other negative responses like anger. “Our data show that what really undermines people the most in the long term is disengagement and passivity,” Schnitker says.

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Evidence also shows that people capable of waiting for rewards tend to have better health outcomes. They’re considerably more likely to make it to age 65 and have fewer medical conditions and hospitalizations than people who are more impatient. Patience is also linked to healthier weight and metabolism, and reduced pain among people with heart disease.

Relatedly, Sweeny says, the ability to delay gratification helps people stick to an exercise routine, keep a balanced diet, and act conscientiously when recovering from illness or injury. 

Sweeny also notes that any chronic negative emotion, including impatience, worsens mental health. Researchers have found that impatience decreases friendliness and willingness to help others, explains Cassie Mogilner Holmes, a professor of behavioral decision-making at UCLA. “Patience is tightly linked to positive emotions,” Holmes says. Some research has even linked it to a lower suicide risk. 

Here’s how to improve your patience.

Set realistic expectations

Our modern environment is working against us when it comes to cultivating patience. Though tech can help us outsource some tasks, many people use it as a lever to do more, not less. “We expect to accomplish more at any given point in time,” Holmes says.

The ironic result is that people start feeling like they never have enough time. This “pervading sense of time poverty” can cause impatience, Holmes says.

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Setting realistic expectations might involve taking breaks from social media because of how some users curate their accounts to emphasize or exaggerate professional and personal accomplishments. Constant exposure to these idealized milestones can create a sense of falling behind, stoking impatience by making our own efforts seem gradual by comparison. “We’re flooded with things other people are doing,” Holmes says. “Social media has absolutely exacerbated the negative effects of social comparison.”

Avoiding these highlight reels may boost your patience with your own progress and achievements.

Change your mindset

Having to wait for something can prompt a flurry of negative thoughts. An effective strategy for becoming more patient is to think more constructively.

One approach is to concentrate your thoughts on empathy. When I’m behind a slow driver, for example, I can consider plausible explanations for the other person’s sluggish pace, Schnitker suggests. Perhaps the driver is a senior with poor eyesight who’s trying to make it safely to the  doctor’s office.

Or consider how it can feel to have to wait under uncertain circumstances, such as after a job interview or medical test. It’s natural to wish the result would come sooner to ease the anxiety—especially toward the end of the waiting period, Sweeny has found—which can cause plenty of impatience. 

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But people are better at tolerating the wait if they think in ways that enhance their sense of control, Sweeny says. You could strategize about how you’d cope with a bad outcome, or how you might positively affect that outcome—by obtaining health insurance while awaiting medical test results, for example. Focusing on agency over urgency will improve well-being, Sweeny notes, and “you’ll be more ready whatever the outcome.” 

When Sweeny asked women at a biopsy appointment if any good could come from a future breast cancer diagnosis, 76% replied that it could. Prompted by Sweeny’s questions, the women reflected on how such a diagnosis could ultimately drive greater appreciation for life. This alleviated some fear and impatience as they waited.

Cultivating a grounded but optimistic outlook—guardedly confident, not Pollyanna— supports calm patience. Optimism declines as we get closer to receiving potentially bad news, but regularly “practicing optimism makes it easier” in this situation, Sweeny says.

Savor what feels pleasant

Patience may improve after mindfulness sessions. Meditation is especially effective, but a mindful walk or meal can help, too. “You learn to enjoy the moment instead of regretting what you can’t do while trapped in a traffic jam,” Sweeny says.

Amy Errmann, a senior lecturer at Auckland University of Technology in New Zealand, has found mindfulness reduces impulsivity and slows down our perception of time. “We think of time more expansively in the present and future,” Errmann says. In this way, mindfulness counters the modern sense of time poverty, she explains. Meditation can also decrease rumination, which fuels impatience.

You could also focus on savoring anything pleasant, like people you’re grateful for or just a clear blue sky. “Savoring slows down this time pressure building up in our daily lives,” Errmann explains.

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“Savoring is really important,” Holmes says. Your child’s efforts to put on their shoes may seem eternal, but try to view these formative moments as precious and fleeting; one day, they’ll leave the house without you. Instead of fixating on how long it takes to improve your golf game, savor the fact that you’re able to play the sport at all. As Holmes puts it: “How many more times do you have to do this thing you love?” She’s found people who think this way enjoy greater meaning in their lives and feel like they have more time.

When mindfulness and savoring become habitual responses to minor frustrations, you’re actively cultivating patience that carries over to more consequential challenges. “A lot of patience is learning how to regulate emotions,” Sweeny says. “If you practice in small ways, you can start applying these new strategies and skills to bigger things.”

Distract yourself with flow

Distraction is another strategy to counter impatience. Getting into a flow state—deep, effortless focus—is a productive way to do it.

Sweeny’s parents live in Florida, and she’s felt impatient while trying to contact them to ensure they’re safe during hurricanes. “They keep having to evacuate,” she says, “and there’s nothing I can do about it.” So, to pass the time without being distracted as much by anxiety, she absorbs herself in data analysis for her research projects. “The flow state really pulls me in, so I’m not really capable of worrying,” Sweeny says. Her research bears this out: flow helps boost well-being during uncertain waiting periods.

Learn when to pay attention to impatience

Impatience isn’t always bad. It may alert us to problems that must be actively solved, when passive waiting won’t cut it. Schnitker has found that having a deep sense of purpose—something beyond yourself—helps motivate patience, but it’s equally important to know when to disengage with a purpose leading nowhere and reject the status quo.

Long ago, humans chopped and ground meats and vegetables on natural surfaces like rocks. Eventually, we decided to trade these slab stones for wooden cutting boards. More recently, many home chefs, restaurants, and food producers have switched to plastic boards for convenience, lighter weight, and cost-effectiveness.

But recent research points to a potential downside: the cutting action of knives causes plastic boards to release tiny pieces, called microplastics, into the chopped-up food. Whether these fragments of plastic affect health likely depends on many factors that continue to be studied.

Here’s what researchers say about plastic boards and whether you should replace them with another material.

What happens to the plastic in your cutting board?

Emerging research suggests that when people consume microplastics from various sources, such as plastic water bottles, they could get absorbed by the body’s tissues. Some scientists think such absorption may lead to chronic inflammation and oxidative stress, issues that increase the risk of health problems. 

However, some microplastics, including ones from plastic cutting boards, might be too large for our bodies to absorb. 

Studies demonstrate that when we cut upon plastic boards, microplastics are produced and mix into the food. A single knife stroke can release 100-300 microplastics, according to one analysis. Research has shown that about 50% of the released microplastics stay on the cutting board after chopping and go down the drain when the board is washed (good for you, perhaps, but not great for wastewater pollution). The other 50%, we consume.

In 2023, a team of scientists at North Dakota State University found microplastics were released into carrots after being chopped on plastic boards. Based on their lab work, the team projected significant exposure to microplastics from regular use of plastic boards for a year. But they looked only for relatively large microplastics, says Syeed Iskander, assistant professor of environmental engineering and the study’s corresponding author. 

Read More: What Happens to the Plastic in Dishwasher Pods?

According to some research, only the tiniest microplastics could enter liver cells and cause changes in human colon cells. Other papers have speculated more generally that only microplastics smaller than 10 microns can be taken up by the body’s organs. (A micron is one-thousandth of a millimeter.) Larger pieces might pass through the digestive tract harmlessly.

Iskander thinks that, had his team’s methods allowed them to observe smaller microplastics, they probably would have found many. In another study, researchers in the United Arab Emirates looked at microplastic contamination of raw cut fish and chicken on plastic cutting boards used by butchers. They found only particles 15.6 microns and bigger (though butchers’ forceful chopping may produce different microplastic sizes than home prep).

“The size distribution is important when it comes to health because that really governs whether this material is just going to pass through the body or will permeate it,” says Stephanie Wright, associate professor at Imperial College London who studies microplastics and health. Wright adds the microplastics found in the North Dakota and UAE studies “would typically be considered too large to cross the gut” into the rest of the body.

The UAE study also found that washing the food after it had been chopped—for one minute with running tap water—removed small amounts of microplastics, but the vast majority stuck to the food, says Thies Thiemann, the study’s corresponding author, a chemistry professor at United Arab Emirates University.

Research on particle size isn’t settled. According to some studies, larger microplastics can move through the body’s barriers.

Microplastics may pose a risk regardless of size

Size may be just one determinant of whether microplastics from cutting boards affect health. Some scientists say the chemicals from microplastics could still cause problems, even if the microplastics themselves pass through and out of the body. 

Heat is being studied as a factor. After chopped food is mixed with microplastics, it often goes to the oven, stove, or microwave. Because microplastics contain many chemical additives and have a low melting point, “they may break down and release these chemicals, especially if cooked at high temperatures,” Iskander explains. “The chemicals can readily end up in our blood.”

During frying or pressure cooking, “heat will certainly encourage migration of chemical additives out of the plastic,” Wright says. She adds that cooking oils and fatty meats further promote this migration.

Read More: What Happens to the Plastic in Single-Serve Coffee Pods?

The same issue happens in reverse when food is cooked whole and then chopped and scraped while still steaming on plastic boards—a common practice at restaurants, Iskander notes.

Research hasn’t directly connected the use of plastic cutting boards to human health impacts, but it has been explored in animals. This year, scientists in China fed mice diets prepared on boards made of different plastic types. Another group ate food made on wood boards. After a few months of this, the wood-board group was doing fine, but the mice with food cut on plastic boards had more intestinal inflammation and disturbed gut bacteria.

This held true even though no microplastics were found in the mouse bodies, suggesting the chemicals released by the microplastics may have been responsible. 

The authors emphasized their findings don’t directly apply to humans. They also noted the mice were purposely given high doses of microplastics to simulate one year of exposure, but over a relatively short period of time. In the future, lower doses should be studied. “It’s hard to extrapolate animal research to much lower exposures every day,” says Wright, who did not work on the study.

In our kitchens, exposure levels can vary based on additional factors, such as how vigorously you chop—firmer food demands more forceful knife strokes—and your frequency of chopping. (Buying pre-made, ultra-processed food to avoid chopping isn’t the answer; studies consistently find ultra-processed foods contain the most microplastics.) 

Another issue is how long you’ve had your board. The UAE researchers found plastic boards released more microplastics as they wore down with increased usage. “Repeat behaviors and repeat exposures are probably quite important when we think about long-term health outcomes,” Wright says.

Plastics and chemical additives used in cutting boards sold in the U.S. must meet safety requirements of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for “reasonable certainty of no harm,” says Kimberly Wise White, vice president of regulatory and scientific affairs at the American Chemistry Council, a trade association. “This means the [plastic] polymer used to make the board must comply, as well as any additives,” White says.

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) advises on its website that plastic cutting boards can be used “without the worry of impacting one’s health.” 

But research on microplastics is nascent. The World Health Organization is prioritizing the need to address their “known and predicted health risks.” The European Food Safety Authority says more research is needed, partly because many studies are thought to have overestimated microplastic amounts through flawed measurement. “There’s a lot of uncertainty,” Iskander says.

Cutting board alternatives

If you want to move on from plastic boards, one alternative is wood. However, switching to wood cuts both ways. It involves its own issues and concerns.

Wood is easier on knives than another cutting-board material, titanium, but a potential problem is microbial growth. Wood boards have surfaces with pores that take in moisture and bits of food, letting bacteria penetrate and hang out, potentially leading to cross-contamination. 

Ben Chapman, department head of agricultural and health sciences at North Carolina State University—whose podcast Risky or Not? analyzes everyday risks from germs— thinks the risk is low if boards are cleaned after every use. Any leftover bacteria “will probably die as they get trapped deep in the cracks,” he says.

Without such washing, you could become one of 48 million cases of food-borne illness annually in the U.S. If you haven’t gotten sick yet, that doesn’t prove invincibility. “The risk of acute illness is a probability game,” Chapman says, depending on the exposure type and timing.

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Plastic beats wood on convenience, especially when it comes to cleanliness. The dishwasher would destroy wood boards, whereas plastic is dishwasher-friendly. Wood must be washed by hand: first with soap to remove debris, followed by a food-safe sanitizer, Chapman recommends. He uses a plastic board for raw meats and wood boards for everything else.

Cold-water exposure is hot right now. From influencers touting the mental-health benefits of cold showers to professional athletes swearing by ice baths for recovery, it’s become a bonafide wellness trend. Advocates claim it can sharpen focus, improve immunity, and even reduce inflammation.

But researchers say the evidence, while intriguing, is mixed. Small studies suggest that brief exposure to cold water—like in a cold shower—can improve alertness and mood, yet other research finds minimal or short-term effects. What’s clear is that the practice triggers a cascade of physiological changes that can feel invigorating—and for some, therapeutic.

“When cold water hits your skin, your body has a cold-shock response,” says Dr. Jonathan Leary, founder and CEO of Remedy Place, a wellness social club that offers guided cold plunges. “This basically means fast breathing, a brief spike in heart rate and blood pressure, and a surge of stress hormones that make you feel wide awake.”

This type of cold exposure has been linked to improved mood and lower stress, but the research is still emerging, says Dr. Neha Pathak, a physician in internal medicine and lifestyle medicine. “Several small studies suggest cold exposure triggers the release of mood-boosting neurotransmitters like dopamine and norepinephrine, improving mood and focus.” However, research in this area is “promising, not definitive.”

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One analysis of studies, published in 2025, found that after roughly 12 hours of immersion in cold water, people’s stress levels dropped and their sleep quality improved. And a 2015 randomized trial of more than 3,000 participants in the Netherlands found that when people ended their warm showers with 30 to 90 seconds of cold water, the number of sick days they took dropped by nearly 30% (though they didn’t get sick any less often). While interesting, these pieces of evidence are hardly proof of the power of cold showers.

“We still need high-quality trials on dosing—time, frequency, temperature—and long-term outcomes,” Pathak says. “It’s reasonable to say cold exposure may help, not that it absolutely does.”

Being doused in cold water jolts your sympathetic nervous system into gear. This releases adrenaline and norepinephrine, hormones that temporarily increase heart rate, alertness, and blood circulation.

Research shows that this type of stress response also mobilizes certain immune cells that help fight infection. In short bursts, this can act like a wake-up call for your immune system.

A 2014 study found that people who underwent training for cold exposure—like cold-water immersions—and breathing techniques could voluntarily influence their immune response. When given an endotoxin (a substance that typically triggers inflammation), those who practiced cold training produced less of a protein that controls inflammation and experienced milder symptoms compared to a control group of people not trained in these techniques.

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A cold dip might help invigorate you, but it shouldn’t be your only stress-relieving practice. “The immunity response is felt to be a direct correlation to stress reduction,” says Dr. Sirisha Vadali, a cardiologist at HonorHealth Women’s Heart Health in Arizona. “It is not a perfect fix but rather a nice boost to already healthy habits.”

A cold shower is a controlled, quick burst of stimulation, whereas an ice bath is a full-body immersion that rapidly drops core temperature.

Cold showers are milder and easier to control. They’re generally safe for most healthy adults, easy to incorporate into daily routines, and have lower risk of shock, arrhythmias, and hypothermia.

Ice baths, on the other hand, are done in very cold water, usually below 50°F (10°C). They trigger the same physiological responses but more intensely. 

Dr. Parth Bhavsar, a family-medicine physician at Wellstar North Fulton Hospital in Georgia and a thermoregulation researcher, explains that both techniques rely on cooling the skin to trigger blood-vessel constriction and hormone release.

“Ice baths cause a faster drop in body temperature and higher adrenaline release,” he says. “That also means a greater risk of heart rhythm disturbances, hypothermia, and what’s called an after-drop, where your temperature continues to fall even after you get out.”

Cold shower aren’t for everyone. They can be risky for anyone with cardiovascular issues, high blood pressure, or respiratory problems, says Pathak. She advises talking to your doctor before trying them if you have heart disease, circulatory issues, Raynaud’s syndrome, or are pregnant.

People with vascular disease—“specifically anyone with circulatory issues and uncontrolled high blood pressure,” Vadali says—should avoid them too, “as this may cause shunting of blood inappropriately.”

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For most healthy adults, however, cold-water exposure can be safe when done gradually. “Repeated cold exposure trains the body to transition between ‘fight or flight’ and ‘rest and digest’ states,” Pathak says. “That physiological flexibility may translate into more emotional or psychological resilience as well.”

Consistency matters more than intensity. Start around 68-70°F  and gradually lower the temperature over time, experts suggest. 

“Around 50–60°F for around one to three minutes is plenty to reap the cardiovascular benefits,” Vadali says. “Anything below 50° for extended periods should be avoided.”

Pathak recommends easing into a cold-water practice by ending your regular shower with 30 seconds of cool water, and gradually extending that time to two to five minutes as your body adapts. 

Each morning, millions of Americans press a single button for a hot cup of coffee. As much as they enjoy the instant comfort, it may have hidden health costs.

Like many other kitchen products, the pods and cups used inside these coffee machines often contain plastic materials. Studies find these materials can shed microplastics, which are then released into the coffee—and emerging research suggests that long-term exposure to microplastics in general may compromise health. In 2024, researchers showed that patients with microplastics in their arteries had higher risk of heart attack, stroke, and early death. 

“We already have evidence that many plastics and related microplastics contain hazardous chemicals that can cause harm,” says Justin Boucher, an environmental engineer and operations director of the Food Packaging Forum, a nonprofit that tracks research on how materials affect food. 

Scientists are finding that coffee pods and cups may contribute to this problem.

Reason for concern

Many coffee pods and single-serve cups include plastics that break down as coffee is made. They can wind up in your drink, making for a cocktail of convenience, caffeine, and microscopic debris.

Microplastics are pieces of plastic smaller than five millimeters. They have become ubiquitous due to our heavy reliance on plastic and get into our bodies in several ways. One path is through plastic food packaging; their microplastics can migrate, along with plastic-related chemicals, into the food.

Because they’re so small, microplastics are absorbed and carried by the blood to vital organs. Lab studies of human cells and animals show they can cause inflammation, oxidative stress, and immune disturbances—issues that contribute to a variety of diseases.

What’s currently lacking is clear evidence that microplastics directly cause these illnesses, says Mohamed Abdallah, professor of environmental chemistry at the University of Birmingham in the U.K. “Our understanding of the toxicity of microplastics remains in its infancy,” Abdallah adds. But he thinks we know enough for people to be concerned. 

Much like the inside of your body, it’s important to understand the inner workings of your single-cup coffee machine. It heats the water to about 190°F, just shy of boiling, and forces it through the pod under high pressure. As the brewed coffee is released from the pod, the heat and pressure cause the plastic to release chemicals and fragment into tiny pieces, which then slip quietly into the dark brown swirl.

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This year, Abdallah published research on three different brands of coffee pods. When he inspected the coffee made from the pods, he found significant levels of microplastics. He confirmed the source of these microplastics by tracing them back to the same kind of plastic used to make each pod. 

Christopher Helt, a toxicologist and director of the GreenScreen Certified® program, run by the nonprofit Clean Production Action, notes “there is clear opportunity for migration of chemical additives into the coffee.” But he also thinks contamination could be limited because the pods are exposed to high heat and pressure for a relatively short time—only a minute or so.

Abdallah says findings may diverge based on the particular methods chosen to measure microplastics and related chemicals. “Depending on what you look at, the numbers vary,” he explains. For instance, studies may use different mesh sizes to filter the microplastics, Abdallah says.

A 2020 paper by University of Connecticut researchers found that chemicals from plastic pods get into the coffee at low levels, but they didn’t look specifically at microplastics, as Abdallah did.

More research is needed. “Overall, highly reliable studies on the topic are lacking,” says Lisa Zimmermann, a biologist and science communication officer at the Food Packaging Forum. But she adds that materials in cups and pods are “highly complex with many different ingredients, which are needed to withstand high heat and pressure inside the machines.” With that kind of complexity, combined with the high heat and pressure, “you have many more chemicals that can migrate into the coffee,” Boucher says.

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has yet to establish relevant standards for assessing exposure to microplastics in food. “The federal government hasn’t done anything specifically related to microplastics,” says Tracey Woodruff, a health policy professor at the University of California, San Francisco, and former senior scientist in the U.S. government. The FDA didn’t respond to TIME’s request for comment.

A strong alternative

Given the research on potential hazards, Boucher and Zimmermann see value in taking a precautionary approach. One alternative, in particular, is safer and less expensive in the long run: pods and cups made of stainless steel.

Stainless steel is safer to heat than plastic. “The complex chemistry needed to retain plastic’s physical properties isn’t needed to protect stainless steel,” Boucher says. The steel pods cost more initially, but they can be washed and used repeatedly, as opposed to single-use plastic. Third-party companies design them to be compatible with popular machines like Keurig and Nespresso.

Some companies advertise pods and cups made with bioplastics that are at least partly plant-based—or intended to mimic plant-based versions—with potential health and environmental benefits. But the replacements are still made of complex materials that include additives like colorants; the chemicals can react in ways the companies may not intend or understand, Boucher says. 

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Biomaterials like corn starch—used in some alternative cups—have their advantages, but they could still be hazardous, Helt says. Some research suggests bioplastics are just as toxic as other plastics.

Meanwhile, Nespresso’s pods are mostly aluminum. However, a Nespresso representative confirmed by email that their capsules contain a small amount of non-aluminum materials, which may include plastic. 

Keurig, which sells the popular coffee pods K-Cups, didn’t reply to TIME’s requests for comment. The Plastics Industry Association, a trade association, provided no comment.

Other sources of microplastics

Plastic pods and cups aren’t the only drivers of microplastics to your morning brew. “There are so many different pathways,” Abdallah says. 

One is the machine itself, as its inner parts are typically plastic—both in single-cup brewers and drip coffee makers. In the same 2025 study, Abdallah found microplastics in coffee drinks that had originated from the machine, in addition to ones from the pods and cups. He analyzed a machine that was eight years old and newer machines about one year old. “The older machine released more microplastics than the two newer versions,” Abdallah says.

When considering your coffee maker’s age, think about a lawn chair made of PVC. “After it sits in your backyard in the sun for a few months or years, it can just start disintegrating,” Boucher says. High heat has a similar effect on your machine.

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Single-cup machines often have external water tanks made of plastic. “That can be a source of microplastics, too,” Abdallah says. The water itself may contain microplastics even before it goes through the machine. However, the coffee coming out the other end has almost two-thirds more of these contaminants, Abdallah found. 

And then there’s milk, if you’re adding it. “Milk can travel through hundreds of feet of plastic tubing during its production phase,” Boucher says, potentially resulting in more microplastics.

Coffee may contain yet more microplastics if you drink it from disposable paper cups; some are lined with plastic. When possible, choose glass instead, Abdallah says. The Food Packaging Forum keeps a research database on plastics contaminating food, including paper cups.

These other sources of microplastics, associated with long-term use of coffee pods, may add up to increase health risks. Researchers think people can reduce risk by using stainless steel pods. Woodruff went a step further: she bought a stainless-steel machine.