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Tag: Environmental Science

  • Alpine rock reveals dynamics of plate movements in Earth’s interior

    Alpine rock reveals dynamics of plate movements in Earth’s interior

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    Newswise — FRANKFURT. Geoscientists analyze rocks in mountain belts to reconstruct how they once moved downwards into the depths and then returned to the surface. This history of burial and exhumation sheds light on the mechanisms of plate tectonics and mountain building. Certain rocks that sink far down into Earth’s interior together with plates are transformed into different types under the enormous pressure that prevails there. During this UHP metamorphosis (UHP: Ultra High Pressure), silica (SiO2) in the rock, for example, becomes coesite, which is also referred to as the UHP polymorph of SiO2. Although it is chemically still silica, the crystal lattices are more tightly packed and therefore denser. When the plates move upwards again from the depths, the UHP rocks also come to the surface and can be found in certain places in the mountains. Their mineral composition provides information about the pressures to which they were exposed during their vertical journey through Earth’s interior. Using lithostatic pressure as a unit of measurement, it is possible to correlate pressure and depth: the higher the pressure, the deeper the rocks once lay.

    Until now, research had assumed that UHP rocks were buried at a depth of 120 kilometers. From there, they returned to the surface together with the plates. In the process, ambient pressure decreased at a stable rate, i.e. statically. However, a new study by Goethe University Frankfurt and the universities of Heidelberg and Rennes (France) calls this assumption of a long, continuous ascent into question. Among those involved in the study on the part of Goethe University Frankfurt were first author Cindy Luisier, who came to the university on a Humboldt Research Fellowship, and Thibault Duretz, head of the Geodynamic Modeling Working Group at the Department of Geosciences. The research team analyzed whiteschist from the Dora Maira Massif in the Western Alps, Italy. “Whiteschists are rocks that formed as a result of the UHP metamorphosis of a hydrothermally altered granite during the formation of the Alps,” explains Duretz. “What is special about them is the large amount of coesite. The coesite crystals in the whiteschist are several hundred micrometers in size, which makes them ideal for our experiments.” The piece of whiteschist from the Dora Maira Massif contained pink garnets in a silvery-white matrix composed of quartz and other minerals. “The rock has special chemical and thus mineralogical properties,” says Duretz. Together with the team, he analyzed it by first cutting a very thin slice about 50 micrometers thick and then gluing it onto glass. In this way, it was possible to identify the minerals under a microscope. The next step was computer modeling of specific, particularly interesting areas.

    These areas were silica particles surrounded by the grains of pink garnet, in which two SiO2 polymorphs had formed. One of these was coesite, which had formed under very high pressure (4.3 gigapascals). The other silica polymorph was quartz, which lay like a ring around the coesite. It had formed under much lower pressure (1.1 gigapascals). The whiteschist had evidently first been exposed to very high and then much lower pressure. There had been a sharp decrease in pressure or decompression. The most important discovery was that spoke-shaped cracks radiated from the SiO2 inclusions in all directions: the result of the phase transition from coesite to quartz. The effect of this transition was a large change in volume, and it caused extensive geological stresses in the rock. These made the garnet surrounding the SiO2 inclusions fracture. “Such radial cracks can only form if the host mineral, the garnet, stays very strong,” explains Duretz. “At such temperatures, garnet only stays very strong if the pressure drops very quickly.” On a geological timescale, “very quickly” means in thousands to hundreds of thousands of years. In this “short” period, the pressure must have dropped from 4.3 to 1.1 gigapascals. The garnet would otherwise have creeped viscously to compensate for the change in volume in the SiO2 inclusions, instead of forming cracks.

    According to Duretz, the previous assumption that UHP rock reaches a depth of 120 kilometers seems less probable in view of this rapid decompression because the ascent from such a depth would take place over a long period of time, which does not equate with the high decompression rate, he says. “We rather presume that our whiteschist lay at a depth of only 60 to 80 kilometers,” says the geoscientist. And the processes underway in Earth’s interior could also be quite different than assumed in the past. That rock units move continuously upwards over great distances, from a depth of 120 kilometers to the surface, also seems less probable than previously thought. “Our hypothesis is that rapid tectonic processes took place instead, which led to minimal vertical plate displacements.” We can imagine it like this, he says: The plates suddenly jerked upwards a little bit in Earth’s interior – and as a result the pressure surrounding the UHP rock decreased in a relatively short time.

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    Goethe-Universitat Frankfurt am Main

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  • Underwater robot finds new circulation pattern in Antarctic ice shelf

    Underwater robot finds new circulation pattern in Antarctic ice shelf

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    Newswise — ITHACA, N.Y. – More than merely cracks in the ice, crevasses play an important role in circulating seawater beneath Antarctic ice shelves, potentially influencing their stability, finds Cornell University-led research based on a first-of-its-kind exploration by an underwater robot.

    The remotely operated Icefin robot’s climb up and down a crevasse in the base of the Ross Ice Shelf produced the first 3D measurements of ocean conditions near where it meets the coastline, a critical juncture known as the grounding zone.

    The robotic survey revealed a new circulation pattern – a jet funneling water sideways through the crevasse – in addition to rising and sinking currents, and diverse ice formations shaped by shifting flows and temperatures. Those details will improve modeling of ice shelf melting and freezing rates at grounding zones, where few direct observations exist, and of their potential contribution to global sea-level rise.

    “Crevasses move water along the coastline of an ice shelf to an extent previously unknown, and in a way models did not predict,” said Peter Washam, a polar oceanographer and research scientist at Cornell University. “The ocean takes advantage of these features, and you can ventilate the ice shelf cavity through them.”

    Washam is the lead author of “Direct Observations of Melting, Freezing and Ocean Circulation in an Ice Shelf Basal Crevasse,” published in Science Advances.

    The scientists in late 2019 deployed the Icefin vehicle – roughly 12 feet long and less than 10 inches around – on a tether down a 1,900-foot borehole drilled with hot water, near where Antarctica’s largest ice shelf meets the Kamb Ice Stream. Such so-called grounding zones are key to controlling the balance of ice sheets, and the places where changing ocean conditions can have the most impact.

    On the team’s last of three dives, Matthew Meister, a senior research engineer, drove Icefin into one of five crevasses found near the borehole. Equipped with thrusters, cameras, sonar and sensors for measuring water temperature, pressure and salinity, the vehicle climbed nearly 150 feet up one slope and descended the other.

    The survey detailed changing ice patterns as the crevasse narrowed, with scalloped indentations giving way to vertical runnels, then green-tinted marine ice and stalactites. Melting at the crevasse base and salt rejection from freezing near the top moved water up and down around the horizontal jet, driving uneven melting and freezing on the two sides, with more melting along the lower downstream wall.

    “Each feature reveals a different type of circulation or relationship of the ocean temperature to freezing,” Washam said. “Seeing so many different features within a crevasse, so many changes in the circulation, was surprising.”

    The researchers said the findings highlight crevasses’ potential to transport changing ocean conditions – warmer or colder – through an ice shelf’s most vulnerable region.

    “If water heats up or cools off, it can move around in the back of the ice shelf quite vigorously, and crevasses are one of the means by which that happens,” Washam said. “When it comes to projecting sea-level rise, that’s important to have in the models.”

    The research was funded by Project RISE UP (Ross Ice Shelf and Europa Underwater Probe), part of NASA’s Planetary Science and Technology from Analog Research program, with logistical support provided by the National Science Foundation through the U.S. Antarctic Program. It was facilitated by the New Zealand Antarctic Research Institute, Aotearoa New Zealand Antarctic Science Platform and the Victoria University of Wellington Hot Water Drilling initiative.

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    Cornell University

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  • CEHC Researchers Partner with National Weather Service to Improve Extreme Heat Communication

    CEHC Researchers Partner with National Weather Service to Improve Extreme Heat Communication

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    Newswise — ALBANY, N.Y. (Oct. 27, 2023) — While flooding, tornadoes and hurricanes often dominate headlines when it comes to deadly weather, heat-related events claim more lives in the United States than any other type of extreme weather.

    From 2004–2018, an average of 702 heat-related deaths occurred in the United States annually, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. That’s more than the average from hurricanes and tornadoes combined.

    A new study, led by researchers at the University at Albany’s College of Emergency Preparedness, Homeland Security and Cybersecurity (CEHC), in partnership with collaborators at the National Weather Service, is aiming to improve those statistics through a critical aspect of extreme weather resiliency — risk communication.

    The two-year study will focus on how current heat information is accessed and understood by people in the U.S. through $471,805 in support from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

    “The way that extreme heat events are communicated has implications for how members of the public take action to protect themselves,” said Michele “Micki” Olson, a senior researcher at CEHC’s Emergency and Risk Communication Message Testing Lab and the project’s lead principal investigator.

    “Our study will provide a baseline assessment of current heat risk and preparedness messaging, including how it is understood by vulnerable populations.”

    A National Review of Heat Messaging

    To conduct their assessment, project researchers will lead 16 focus groups in areas across the U.S. that represent different climatologies and population types. 

    Focus group participants will first view the content of recent social media posts shared by their local National Weather Service Forecast Office (WFO) during recent extreme heat events. They will then be invited to share their thoughts about the heat risk, impacts and actions they can take to protect themselves based on that information.

    “In our prior work, we found that there’s a lot of technical language — or jargon — used to describe heat risk and its impact on vulnerable populations,” said Jeannette Sutton, an associate professor who directs CEHC’s Emergency and Risk Communication Message Testing Lab and is the project’s co-principal investigator. 

    “Our focus groups will be looking at text as well as images in each message because these communicate different things. In particular, we want to know what terms may be confusing and why. We will then ask participants about their prior experiences with extreme heat and how they obtain heat-related information.”

    Following the focus groups, the researchers will send out a national survey, allowing them to gather additional data and compare how people think about extreme heat in different parts of the country.

    Their findings will be shared through presentations at the American Meteorological Society and the National Weather Service, as well as in published articles.

    “Using both methods — the focus groups and a national survey — will provide us with a more complete picture of how people understand heat-related information,” Olson said. “By communicating directly with the National Weather Service, and other emergency managers, we can provide immediate actionable recommendations that can be implemented for heat risk and preparedness messaging.”

    Extreme Weather Communication

    Along with this study, researchers at UAlbany, including Sutton and Olson, are currently leading several other projects that are focused on improving the preparedness and response to extreme weather events in the U.S.  

    Earlier this year, Erie County turned to researchers at UAlbany and the National Weather Service to help ensure Western New Yorkers are better prepared for future winter storms. Among the project’s goals is to assess communication around last year’s Christmas blizzard, which brought nearly 52 inches of snow to the Buffalo area over five days.

    Another ongoing project, which includes a mix of UAlbany weather, climate and emergency preparedness researchers, is focused on creating new support tools for New York City emergency managers to use during extreme heat waves.

    “Much of our previous work is relevant to this newly funded project,” Sutton said. “Being able to understand messaging is one of the first steps to taking protective action. People cannot act on warning if they do not understand the information it contains.”

    The latest project will also fund a UAlbany graduate student researcher with an interest in the intersection of weather and risk communication.

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    University at Albany, State University of New York

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  • RUDN Agronomists Found Green Way to Mitigate the Effects of Soil Salinity

    RUDN Agronomists Found Green Way to Mitigate the Effects of Soil Salinity

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    Newswise — RUDN University agronomists and colleagues from Egypt, Kazakhstan, and Russia have found a way to mitigate the damage from soil salinity. To do that, they used not synthetic chemicals but completely harmless amino acids. The results were published in the Horticulturae.

    Most crops are sensitive to soil salinity. Excess salts cause salt stress – plants lack water, photosynthesis is supressed, respiration worsens, chlorophyll breaks down, and potassium ions leak. Water-soluble toxic salts stimulate the synthesis of reactive oxygen species that destroys cells. Due to global climate change, there is more saline land. RUDN University agronomists with colleagues from Egypt, Kazakhstan, and Russia have shown that organic amino acids – biostimulants – can reduce the harm from salt stress.

    “Salinization affects more than 6% of the world’s land. Biostimulants are attracting research attention because they are a sustainable method for combating toxins and biotic stress to improve water and nutrient absorption. The use of biostimulants to mitigate salt stress instead of synthetic chemicals is the key to sustainable agriculture,” said Meisam Zargar, Doctor of Agricultural Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of Agrobiotechnology at RUDN University. 

    Agronomists created an environment that simulated salt stress and grew lettuce (Lactuca sativa). The authors then sprayed the lettuce with six amino acids: alanine, arginine, glutamine, glycine, methionine, and proline at a concentration of 0.5 grams per liter. After the end of the experiment, agronomists measured the activity of photosynthetic pigments, the level of ion absorption, the content of endogenous amino acids, and the activity of catalase and peroxidase enzymes – they regulate the oxidative processes of the plant and play a significant role in respiration.

    Glycine, methionine, and proline improved the condition of plants. The use of amino acids mitigated the increase in electrical conductivity under the influence of salt stress. The amount of chlorine anions decreased by 25% compared to plants that were not treated with amino acids. The absorption of potassium cations improved, the concentration of chlorophyll also increased. Methionine and proline increased the production of pant’s own amino acids.

    “Amino acids had a beneficial effect on the growth, physiological, and biochemical characteristics of lettuce. To reduce the negative effects of salt stress, we recommend spraying lettuce crops with methionine or proline at a dose of 0.5 grams per liter. However, this is only a small part of the study of the potential damage from salinity due to climate change,” said Meisam Zargar, Doctor of Agricultural Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of Agricultural Biotechnology at RUDN University.

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    Scientific Project Lomonosov

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  • Bumblebees prioritize maximizing calorie intake in minimal time.

    Bumblebees prioritize maximizing calorie intake in minimal time.

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    Newswise — Research has found that bumblebees make foraging choices to collect the most sugar from flowers in the shortest time – even if that means using more energy in the process – to provide an immediate energy boost for the colony.

    A new study investigating nectar drinking in one of the most common bumblebees in the UK, Bombus terrestris, has found that when foraging they maximise the amount of nectar sugar they take back to the colony each minute.

    To make their choices, the bumblebees trade off the time they spend collecting nectar with the energy content of that nectar. This means they will forage to collect nectar that’s hard to access – but only if the sugar content of that nectar makes it worth doing so.

    This big-and-fast approach contrasts with honeybee foraging: honeybees make their decisions by optimising their individual energy expenditure for any nectar they collect. This more measured approach should prolong the honeybee’s working life.

    “As they forage, bumblebees are making decisions about which nectar sources will give the greatest immediate energetic return, rather than optimising the energy efficiency of their foraging,” said Dr Jonathan Pattrick, joint first author of the report, who started the research while in the University of Cambridge’s Department of Plant Sciences.

    Pattrick, now based at the University of Oxford, added: “Our results allow us to make predictions about the sorts of flowers the bumblebees are likely to visit, which could inform the choice of which flowers to plant in field margins to support these important pollinators. It’s also relevant to crop breeders who want to make varieties that are ‘better’ for bumblebees.”

    The results are published today in the journal iScience.

    Over six months the researchers made 60,000 behavioural observations of the bumblebees, allowing them to precisely estimate bumblebee foraging energetics. It was painstaking work: each bumblebee in the study was watched for up to eight hours a day without a break.

    The team used vertically and horizontally oriented artificial flowers, with surfaces that were slippery and difficult for the bumblebees to grip.

    A custom computer program allowed the team to measure the split-second timing as the bumblebees flew between the artificial flowers and foraged from them. This meant the team could track how much energy the bumblebees spent flying as well as how much they collected when drinking, and identify how the bumblebees decided whether to spend extra time and energy collecting high-sugar nectar from slippery flowers, or take the easier option of collecting lower-sugar nectar from flowers they could land on.

    “It’s amazing that even with a brain smaller than a sesame seed, bumblebees can make such complex decisions,” said Dr Hamish Symington in the University of Cambridge’s Department of Plant Sciences and joint first author of the report.

    He added: “It’s clear that bumblebee foraging isn’t based on a simple idea that ‘the more sugar there is in nectar, the better’ – it’s much more subtle than that. And it highlights that there’s still so much to learn about insect behaviour.”

    Individual bumblebees were given one of three tests. In the first test, the nectar on both vertical and horizontal artificial flowers had the same amount of sugar, and the bumblebees made the obvious choice to forage from the horizontal flowers, rather than spend extra time and energy hovering at the vertical ones. In the second test, the nectar on the vertical flowers was much more sugary than the nectar on the horizontal flowers, and the bumblebees chose to drink almost exclusively from the vertical flowers.

    In the third test, the vertical flowers offered nectar which was only slightly more sugary than the horizontal flowers. This created a situation in which the bumblebees had to make a trade-off between the time and energy they spent foraging and the energy in the nectar they were drinking – and they switched to feeding from the horizontal flowers.

    The results show that bumblebees can choose to spend additional time and energy foraging from hard-to-access nectar sources – but only if the reward is worth it.

    Bumblebees drink nectar from flowers, then offload it in their nest – by regurgitation – for use by other bumblebees in the nest. Unlike honeybees, bumblebees only store a small amount of nectar in the nest, so they need to make the most of every opportunity to forage.

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    University of Cambridge

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  • UN-led study finds Bitcoin mining has “concerning” effects on land, water, and carbon.

    UN-led study finds Bitcoin mining has “concerning” effects on land, water, and carbon.

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    By the numbers, global bitcoin mining in 2020-2021:

    • Used 173 terawatt hours of electricity (more than most nations)
    • Emitted 86 megatons of carbon (like burning 8.5 billion pounds of coal)
    • Required 1.65 cubic kilometers of water (more than the domestic use of 300 million people in Sub-Saharan Africa)
    • Affected 1,870 square kilometers of land (1.4 times the size of Los Angeles)
    • Got 67% of its energy from fossil fuels, with coal contributing 45%

    Newswise — WASHINGTON — As bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies have grown in market share, they’ve been criticized for their heavy carbon footprint: Cryptocurrency mining is an energy-intensive endeavor. Mining has massive water and land footprints as well, according to a new study that is the first to detail country-by-country environmental impacts of bitcoin mining. It serves as the foundation for a new United Nations (UN) report on bitcoin mining, also published today.

    The study reveals how each country’s mix of energy sources defines the environmental footprint of its bitcoin mining and highlights the top 10 countries for energy, carbon, water and land use. The work was published in Earth’s Future, which publishes interdisciplinary research on the past, present and future of our planet and its inhabitants.

    “A lot of our exciting new technologies have hidden costs we don’t realize at the onset,” said Kaveh Madani, a Director at United Nations University who led the new study. “We introduce something, it gets adopted, and only then do we realize that there are consequences.”

    Madani and his co-authors used energy, carbon, water and land use data from 2020 to 2021 to calculate country-specific environmental impacts for 76 countries known to mine bitcoin. They focused on bitcoin because it’s older, popular and more well-established/widely used than other cryptocurrencies.

    Madani said the results were “very interesting and very concerning,” in part because demand is rising so quickly. But even with more energy-efficient mining approaches, if demand continues to grow, so too will mining’s environmental footprints, he said.

    Electricity and carbon

    If bitcoin mining were a country, it would be ranked 27th in energy use globally. Overall, bitcoin mining consumed about 173 terawatt hours of electricity in the two years from January 2020 to December 2021, about 60% more than the energy used for bitcoin mining in 2018-2019, the study found. Bitcoin mining emitted about 86 megatons of carbon, largely because of the dominance of fossil fuel-based energy in bitcoin-mining countries.

    The environmental impact of bitcoin mining fluctuates along with energy supply and demand in a country. When energy is inexpensive, the profitability of mining bitcoin goes up. But when energy is expensive, the value of bitcoin must be high enough to make the cost of mining worth it to the miner, whether it’s an individual, a company or a government.

    China, the U.S. and Kazakhstan had the largest energy and carbon footprints in 2020-2021.

    Water

    Globally, bitcoin mining used 1.65 million liters (about 426,000 gallons) of water in 2020-2021, enough to fill more than 660,000 Olympic-sized swimming pools. China, the U.S. and Canada had the largest water footprints. Kazakhstan and Iran, which along with the U.S. and China have suffered from water shortages, were also in the top-10 list for water footprint.

    “These are very, very worrying numbers,” Madani said. “Even hydropower, which some countries consider a clean source of renewable energy, has a huge footprint.”

    Land use

    The study analyzed land use by considering the area of land affected to produce energy for mining. The land footprint of server farms is negligible, Kaveh said. The global land use footprint of bitcoin mining is 1,870 square kilometers (722 square miles), with China’s footprint alone taking up 913 square kilometers (353 square miles). The U.S.’ land footprint is 303 square kilometers (117 square miles), and likely growing while China’s is shrinking.

    Most impacted countries

    China and the United States, which have two of the largest economies and populations in the world, take the top two spots across all environmental factors. A mix of other countries make up the other 8 spots in the top 10. Kazakhstan, Malaysia, Iran and Thailand — countries to which servers are outsourced and, in some cases, where cryptocurrency mining is subsidized by the government — appear as well. Canada, Germany and Russia have some of the largest footprints across all categories. Each country engaged in large-scale bitcoin mining affects countries around the world by their carbon emissions, Kaveh noted.

    But the benefits of bitcoin mining may not accrue to the country, or the individuals, doing the work. Cryptocurrency mining is an extractive and, by design, difficult to trace process, so geographic distribution of environmental impacts cannot be assumed to be a map of the biggest digital asset owners.

    “It’s hard to know exactly who is benefiting from this,” Madani said. “The issue now is who is suffering from this.”

    Already, some countries have potentially seen their resources impacted by cryptocurrency mining. In 2021, Iran faced blackouts. The government blamed bitcoin mining for excessively draining hydropower during a drought and periodically banned the practice.

    China in June 2021 banned bitcoin mining and transactions in the country; other countries, such as the U.S. and Kazakhstan, have taken up the slack and had their shares in bitcoin increase by 34% and 10%, respectively.

    Madani said the study is not meant to indict bitcoin or other cryptocurrency mining. “We’re getting used to these technologies, and they have hidden costs we don’t realize,” he said. “We want to inform people and industries about what these costs might be before it’s too late.”

    Notes for journalists:

    This study is published in Earth’s Future, an open-access journal. View and download a pdf of the study here. The authors’ policy-related comments do not necessarily reflect the views of the American Geophysical Union.

    This study provides the peer-reviewed data serving as a foundation for the U.N. report, “The Hidden Environmental Cost of Cryptocurrency: How Bitcoin Mining Impacts Climate, Water and Land,” published on the same day as this study. The report includes additional data that have not been peer-reviewed by Earth’s Future. View the U.N. press release here.

    Paper title:

    “The environmental footprint of bitcoin mining across the globe: Call for urgent action”

    Authors:

    • Sanaz Chamanara, United Nations University Institute for Water, Environment and Health, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
    • S. Arman Ghaffarizadeh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
    • Kaveh Madani (corresponding author), Director of the United Nations University Institute for Water, Environment and Health, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada

    #

    AGU (www.agu.org) is a global community supporting more than half a million advocates and professionals in Earth and space sciences. Through broad and inclusive partnerships, AGU aims to advance discovery and solution science that accelerate knowledge and create solutions that are ethical, unbiased and respectful of communities and their values. Our programs include serving as a scholarly publisher, convening virtual and in-person events and providing career support. We live our values in everything we do, such as our net zero energy renovated building in Washington, D.C. and our Ethics and Equity Center, which fosters a diverse and inclusive geoscience community to ensure responsible conduct.

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    American Geophysical Union (AGU)

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  • Unavoidable rise in West Antarctic Ice Sheet melting.

    Unavoidable rise in West Antarctic Ice Sheet melting.

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    Newswise — Scientists ran simulations on the UK’s national supercomputer to investigate ocean-driven melting of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet: how much is unavoidable and must be adapted to, and how much melting the international community still has control over through reduction of greenhouse gas emissions.

    Taking into account climate variability like El Niño, they found no significant difference between mid-range emissions scenarios and the most ambitious targets of the 2015 Paris Agreement. Even under a best-case scenario of 1.5°C global temperature rise, melting will increase three times faster than during the 20th century.

    The West Antarctic Ice Sheet is losing ice and is Antarctica’s largest contributor to sea-level rise. Previous modelling finds this loss could be driven by warming of the Southern Ocean, particularly the Amundsen Sea region. Collectively the West Antarctic Ice Sheet contains enough ice to raise global mean sea-level by up to five metres.

    Around the world millions of people live near the coast and these communities will be greatly impacted by sea level rise. A better understanding of the future changes will allow policymakers to plan ahead and adapt more readily.

    Lead author Dr Kaitlin Naughten, a researcher at the British Antarctic Survey says:

    “It looks like we’ve lost control of melting of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet. If we wanted to preserve it in its historical state, we would have needed action on climate change decades ago. The bright side is that by recognising this situation in advance, the world will have more time to adapt to the sea level rise that’s coming. If you need to abandon or substantially re-engineer a coastal region, having 50 years lead time is going to make all the difference.”

    The team simulated four future scenarios of the 21st century, plus one historical scenario of the 20th century. The future scenarios either stabilised global temperature rise at the targets set out by the Paris Agreement, 1.5°C and 2°C, or followed standard scenarios for medium and high carbon emissions.

    All scenarios resulted in significant and widespread future warming of the Amundsen Sea and increased melting of its ice-shelves. The three lower-range scenarios followed nearly identical pathways over the 21st century. Even under the best-case scenario, warming of the Amundsen Sea sped up by about a factor of three, and melting of the floating ice shelves which stabilise the inland glaciers followed, though it did begin to flatten by the end of the century.

    The worst-case scenario had more ice shelf melting than the others, but only after 2045. The authors heed that this high fossil fuel scenario, where emissions increase rapidly, is considered unlikely to occur.

    This study presents sobering future projections of Amundsen Sea ice-shelf melting but does not undermine the importance of mitigation in limiting the impacts of climate change.

    Naughten cautions: “We must not stop working to reduce our dependence on fossil fuels. What we do now will help to slow the rate of sea level rise in the long term. The slower the sea level changes, the easier it will be for governments and society to adapt to, even if it can’t be stopped.”

    Unavoidable future increase in West Antarctic ice-shelf melting over the 21st century by Kaitlin Naughten (BAS), Paul Holland (BAS), Jan De Rydt (Northumbria) is published in the journal Nature Climate Change.

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    British Antarctic Survey

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  • Climate elevates toxin risk in Northern US lakes.

    Climate elevates toxin risk in Northern US lakes.

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    Newswise — Washington, DC— As climate change warms the Earth, higher-latitude regions will be at greater risk for toxins produced by algal blooms, according to new research led by Carnegie’s Anna Michalak, Julian Merder, and Gang Zhao. Their findings, published in Nature Water, identify water temperatures of 20 to 25 degrees Celsius (68 to 77 degrees Fahrenheit) as being at the greatest risk for developing dangerous levels of a common algae-produced toxin called microcystin.  

    Harmful algal blooms result when bodies of water get overloaded with nitrogen and phosphorus runoff from agriculture and other human activities. These excess nutrients can allow blue-green algae populations to grow at an out-of-control rate.

    Some blue-green algal species produce a toxin called microcystin, which can pose a serious health hazard to people and the environment, as well as pose economic risks for fishing and tourism. Microcystin affects liver function and can cause death in wild and domestic animals, including humans in rare instances. It is also classified as a potential carcinogen in cases of chronic exposure.

    “In 2014 an algal bloom in Lake Erie led to high levels of microcystin in water intakes, and residents in Ohio and Ontario were instructed not to drink tap water due to risk of exposure,” Merder cautioned.

    Merder, Michalak, and their colleagues—Carnegie’s Gang Zhao, University of Kansas’s Ted Harris, and Dimitrios Stasinopoulos and Robert Rigby of the University of Greenwich—analyzed samples taken from 2,804 U.S. lakes between 2007 and 2017. They assessed how water temperature affects the occurrence and concentration of microcystin as part of an effort to better understand the risks to water quality posed by climate change.

    Michalak’s lab has taken a leading role in understanding the intersection of climate change and water quality impairments for more than a decade. Previous work has shown that lakes worldwide are already experiencing more severe algal blooms and that nutrient pollution is being exacerbated by changes in rainfall patterns.

    “Lakes are sentinels of climate change,” Michalak said. “They hold the vast majority, 87 percent, of the liquid freshwater on the Earth’s surface, and the warming and precipitation shifts associated with climate change pose some of the greatest threats to water quality around the world and to the health of aquatic ecosystems.”

    The surface temperatures of lakes have already been warming at 0.34 degrees Celsius (0.61 degrees Fahrenheit) per decade and Merder and Michalak set out to determine what this, as well as future warming, would mean in terms of risk for elevated toxin concentrations.

    “The abundance of blue-green algae is predicted to increase due to climate change as they outcompete other species,” Merder explained. “But previous field studies came to various conclusions about what this means for microcystin concentrations.”

    To inform land and water management strategies, it was important to quantitatively tie toxin levels to water temperature, which Merder and Michalak were able to accomplish through their extensive analysis of lake water samples, revealing that water temperatures in the 20 to 25 degrees Celsius (68 to 77 degrees Fahrenheit) range were most dangerous in terms of elevated microcystin concentrations. They also found that the impact of temperature is amplified when nutrient concentrations are high.

    By incorporating information from climate models, they were able to demonstrate that areas most susceptible to high toxin concentrations will continue to move northward. In some areas, the relative risk of exceeding water quality guidelines will increase by up to 50 percent in the coming decades. Additionally, they showed that toxin hazards will decrease in a small number of regions further south, as water temperatures begin to exceed those associated with the highest risk.

    “These findings should help demonstrate the serious risk to safe water for drinking, fishing, recreation, and other societal needs in many parts of the United States and the urgency for developing management strategies to prepare,” Michalak concluded. “When we think about water sustainability in the context of global change, we need to focus on the quality of the water as much as we focus on the amount of water.”

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    Carnegie Institution for Science

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  • Ushering in the era of light-powered ‘multi-level memories’

    Ushering in the era of light-powered ‘multi-level memories’

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    The Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST) announced that has developed a new zero-dimensional and two-dimensional (2D-0D) semiconductor artificial junction material and observed the effect of a next-generation memory powered by light.

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    National Research Council of Science and Technology

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  • Untouched Brazilian Amazon Regions Lack Ecological Study.

    Untouched Brazilian Amazon Regions Lack Ecological Study.

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    Newswise — Many parts of the Brazilian Amazon are neglected in ecological research, for several reasons, according to an article published in the journal Current Biology. Authored by Joice Ferreira of the Federal University of Pará (UFP) and colleagues from many countries who also belong to the Synergize Consortium, the article identifies the areas missing from ecological research and the factors that have determined these gaps, pinpointing opportunities for the planning of new investments in research in the region.

    The researchers analyzed data from 7,694 ecological research sites to try to understand how logistics and human influence on the forests could explain the probability of research being done in different parts of the Amazon region. The period analyzed was 2010-20, and the survey covered nine groups of organisms: benthic invertebrates (living on the seabed or in the lowest layers of any water body), heteropterans (true bugs), odonates (dragonflies and damselflies), fish, macrophytes (aquatic plants), birds, woody vegetation, ants, and dung beetles.

    “The consortium contacted people who had contributed to databases, standardized inventories and studies involving sampling efforts. Information was thereby compiled on three groups that represent Amazonian biodiversity: vertebrates, invertebrates, and plants in upland forests, flooded forests and aquatic environments – rivers, lakes, etc. This is the first paper published by the group,” said Mario Ribeiro de Moura, a researcher at the State University of Campinas’s Institute of Biology (IB-UNICAMP) in São Paulo, Brazil. He is a co-author of the article and a member of the consortium.

    The findings evidenced high susceptibility to climate change by 2050 in 15%-18% of the most neglected areas in the Brazilian Amazon. The least studied areas are also the most threatened in the vicinity of the “deforestation arc”, a swathe of territory extending along the southern, southeastern and eastern borders of Amazonia, mostly in the states of Acre, Amazonas, Maranhão, Mato Grosso, Pará, Rondônia and Tocantins.

    The main gaps in Amazonian ecological research were in upland areas. “This was expected and probably reflects the role played by navigable waterways in facilitating access to blackwater and whitewater inundation forest, as well as other aquatic environments,” Moura said.

    Not by chance, the least pessimistic scenarios appeared along rivers in northeast Pará and Roraima, southeastern Acre and northern Rondônia. “In these areas, the future impact of climate change will be less severe, and we have more knowledge of the species that live there,” Moura said.

    The study was supported by FAPESP via two postdoctoral fellowships in Brazil. One of the fellowships was awarded to Raquel de Carvalho, and the other to Angélica Faria de Resende. Moura was supported by a Young Investigator Grant and a scholarship in Brazil. 

    Research biases

    The scientists mapped the most neglected areas of the Amazon region in terms of ecological research and superimposed on this map the areas most likely to be affected by climate change based on a metric they developed to reflect its intensity. Deforestation and degradation data were taken from a recent study published in Science on the drivers of deforestation in the Amazon. The correlations between datasets showed that ecological research in the Amazon is more frequent in deforested areas than areas where deforestation is predicted in the next three decades.

    “Environmental change is happening at a very fast pace, including climate change and landscape transformation. To understand how these changes affect biodiversity, we need to know what was in a given area before they happened. The Amazon is one of the last significantly conserved refuges of tropical biodiversity and essential to an understanding of the isolated effect of climate change and habitat destruction on biodiversity,” Moura said. “The study highlighted the areas at risk of environmental change in the coming years and not yet explored by scientists. Without sufficient ecological research, we won’t be able to know what’s changing and what’s being lost.”

    With regard to logistics, accessibility and distance to research facilities were key predictors of the probability of research being done. “Access is a mixed blessing, as evidenced by the deforestation arc. Easy access enables researchers to reach more areas, so part of this immense arc has been thoroughly studied, but it also enables those responsible for deforestation and other malefactors to reach these areas. Little information is available on the threatened areas at the edges of the deforestation arc,” Moura said.

    Access, and hence research probability, increased with proximity to transportation and research facilities for all upland organisms and most representatives of wetlands and aquatic habitats. “The length of the dry season determines ease of access by water. In flooded forest areas, the shorter the dry season, the easier it is to gain access by river, and this increases the likelihood of research. In upland areas, more severe dry seasons facilitate overland access, with less mud and inundation,” Moura said.

    Forest degradation and land tenure were also moderately effective predictors, albeit with consistent importance, across all organism groups. Both factors affected ecological research in the same direction, with research probability slightly declining in more degraded areas and Indigenous territories, but increasing in conservation units. 

    In short, less research is done in degraded areas and Indigenous territories, and more in conservation units. “It’s harder to obtain access to Indigenous communities, or there may be a lack of administrative mechanisms that connect researchers with the bodies that regulate such access and with the communities themselves. We need to improve integration between the parties involved, and above all engage local communities in the knowledge creation process. Far more research goes on in conservation units than Indigenous territories, although both are types of protected area,” Moura said.

    In Carvalho’s opinion, this is a distribution problem, since Indigenous territories account for some 23% of the total area of the Brazilian Amazon. “At the same time, several Indigenous territories are the best conserved parts of the Amazon biome. It would be very valuable if we could do research there,” she said.

    Novel strategies

    According to Moura, the Amazon Rainforest is under-represented in global databases used as a source for research on biodiversity. “As noted in the article, we need to integrate the information we have about the Amazon with global databases. The Synergize Consortium has projects that could contribute to global assessments. The information reviewed for this study mostly complies with the requirements of other databases and could be used to improve the representativeness of Amazonian biodiversity in future research on global change. The consortium plans to use this study as a basis for establishing itself as an important collaborative network for other research groups interested in analyzing environmental changes in the Amazon,” he said.

    The Synergize Consortium’s principal investigators are Ferreira, who is affiliated with EMBRAPA Amazônia Oriental, a unit of the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA); and Filipe França, a researcher at the University of Bristol in the United Kingdom. Jos Barlow, a professor at the University of Lancaster, also in the UK, is a co-author of the article and a member of the consortium’s steering committee.

    Moura believes the group’s findings can be used to develop novel funding strategies for the Amazon. “Once you’ve identified the gaps, you can target them for investment in conservation and research, or give more weight to research in these areas in future calls for proposals. Public policy and action plans can take these results into consideration, especially as far as biodiversity monitoring and inventorying are concerned,” he said.

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    Sao Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP)

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  • 70 Extinct Fish Thriving Again

    70 Extinct Fish Thriving Again

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    Newswise — The houting, a fish species that lived in North Sea estuaries and is officially extinct, turns out to be alive and well. Researchers from the University of Amsterdam and the Natural History Museum London extracted DNA from multiple houtings conserved in the museum, up to 250+ years old. Next they compared the DNA of these museum fish with DNA from various currently occurring sibling species. The biologists found hardly any genetic difference between houting and a species called European whitefish. Since this species is still common, houting also isn’t extinct.

    In a recent publication in the journal BMC Ecology and Evolution, the researchers describe how they isolated mitochondrial DNA from the fish. They even managed to obtain a small piece of DNA from a dried North Sea houting from 1754 that was used by Linnaeus for the official species description. Next they used the DNA to create a phylogenetic tree, in which all examined houting (Coregonus oxyrinchus) ended up in the same group as the European whitefish (Coregonus lavaretus).

    Not extinct

    According to the researchers, houting is therefore not a separate species. First author Rob Kroes of the University of Amsterdam comments: ‘The European whitefish is fairly widespread in Western and Northern Europe, both in freshwater rivers and lakes, estuaries and the sea. Because we found no species difference between houting of the past and today’s European whitefish, we do not consider the houting to be extinct.’

    External traits vs DNA

    So, how is it possible that the houting was officially declared extinct in 2008? Kroes: ‘It often happens that there is confusion as to whether animals are one species or not. Especially when fish are involved. They often have a lot of variation in morphological traits within a species. In this case, biologists long thought that houting is a different species from the European whitefish due to the length of the snout and the number of gill rakers. But these traits are simply not suitable to say that houting is a different species. Our DNA research now clearly shows that it isn’t.’

    Name change

    A change of the official Latin species name seems to be in order. However, a definitive adjustment of the name requires a bit of additional research on the DNA of the dried fish from 1754. According to the researchers, this will be difficult to do. Kroes: ‘The DNA is old and damaged, but I think we should try. At the moment, the protected status of various coregonids is a mess. According to the IUCN, North Sea houting is extinct; at the same time, there are various European nature laws that state that both houting and European whitefish must be protected. So we are actually protecting an extinct species that is just swimming around at the moment.’

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    Universiteit van Amsterdam

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  • RUDN Ecologists Describe Strong Desertification in Northern Algeria

    RUDN Ecologists Describe Strong Desertification in Northern Algeria

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    Newswise — RUDN University ecologists and colleagues from Algeria, Greece, Egypt, and Russia have determined the scale and causes of desertification in northern Algeria. The analysis was carried out using satellite images in different ranges. Over six years, the area of usable land has decreased by 1.5-9 times. The results were published in The Egyptian Journal of Remote Sensing and Space Science.

    The loss of the biological function of land is called desertification. The composition of the soil changes, the sand content increases, and the vegetation becomes poorer. Such lands can no longer be cultivated; livestock cannot graze on them. There are several regions on Earth with a high risk of desertification. One of them is North Africa. Remote monitoring using satellite images helps track desertification. However, different soil types may be difficult to distinguish by satellite data if they have high sand content. It is important to interpret the images correctly. RUDN University ecologists and colleagues from Algeria, Greece, Egypt, and Russia determined which satellite data is best suited for determining soil composition.

    “There is a problem with the similarity of reflectivity between different soils with high sand content. These are, for example, sand, loamy sand and clay. Therefore, it is necessary to develop more accurate spectral indicators to distinguish soil structures easily,” said Dmitry Kucher, Ph.D., head of the Scientific Center for Research, Integrated Design and Development of Urban and Agricultural Development of the RUDN University.

    Ecologists conducted the study in the Nemamcha region in northern Algeria. This region has undergone rapid desertification. To trace spatiotemporal changes in the topsoil, RUDN University ecologists used satellite images from 2013 and 2019 and soil samples. Then they calculated the correlation between these data and analyzed the possible causes of desertification.

    It turned out that blue and near-infrared images are best suited for determining the proportion of sand and clay. Using them, RUDN University ecologists built a regression model determing the composition of the soil with sufficient accuracy—the coefficient of determination (an indicator of model quality) reached 89%.

    Changes in soil composition between 2013 and 2019 indicate noticable desertification: the share of land suitable for agriculture in the region fell from 31% in 2013 to 4% in 2019, and the grazing area fell from 21% to 13%. Ecologists also named the main cause of desertification in this area – aeolian processes, that is, wind erosion and the application of sand by the wind. They turn out to be strong, among other things, because of human activity – too intensive cattle breeding and agriculture.

    “We found a dominant role for aeolian processes, which are exacerbated by low topography, overgrazing, climate change, and over-intensive agriculture. We recommend investigating the protective role of dry grasslands and desert shrublands against erosion and restoring degraded lands. We urge legislators to implement remote monitoring strategies and restore vegetation to combat desertification,” said Dmitry Kucher, Ph.D., Head of the Scientific Center for Research, Integrated Design and Development of Urban and Agriculture at RUDN University.

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    Russian Foundation for Basic Research

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  • Organic nitrogen aerosol plays a vital role in global nitrogen deposition.

    Organic nitrogen aerosol plays a vital role in global nitrogen deposition.

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    Newswise — This study, led by Dr Yumin Li of Southern University of Science and Technology (SUSTech), was a collaboration between Professor Tzung-May Fu’s team at SUSTech and Professor Jian Zhen Yu’s team at Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (HKUST). The research emphasized the previously underestimated significance of atmospheric ON aerosol depositions on ecosystems. Additionally, the ecological effects of ON aerosol depositions are anticipated to increase due to global warming and the decrease in nitrogen oxide emissions from human activities.

    Atmospheric deposition of organic nitrogen (ON) plays a crucial role in the global nitrogen cycle. Surface measurements showed that 2% to 70% of the local atmospheric deposition flux of total nitrogen was organic. However, previous models have largely neglected the spatial and chemical variations of atmospheric ON, leading to inadequate assessment of its global impacts.

    The scientists from SUSTech and HKUST developed a comprehensive global model of atmospheric gaseous and particulate ON, incorporating the latest knowledge on emissions and secondary formations. Their simulated surface concentrations of atmospheric particulate ON (ONp) were highly consistent with global observations, a feat that had not been achieved previously. Additionally, their simulated atmospheric deposition flux aligned with global observations within an order of magnitude. The scientists estimated that the global atmospheric ON deposition was 26 Tg N yr-1. This majority of this deposition (23 Tg N yr-1) occurred in the form of ON aerosol and accounted for 19% of the global atmospheric total N deposition (124 Tg N yr-1). The main sources of ON aerosols were wildfires, ocean emissions, and secondary formation.

    “Our simulation showed that the deposition of ON aerosol from the atmosphere is a crucial external source of nitrogen to nitrogen-limited ecosystems worldwide, such as the boreal forests, tundras, and the Arctic Ocean,” Fu says. In a future warming climate, wildfires will likely become more frequent and intense. Climate warming will also lead to surface ocean stratification, making atmospheric ON deposition an increasingly important source of nitrogen to these ecosystems. “We need to further examine the environmental impacts of atmospheric ON aerosol and how those impacts respond to climate change.”

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    Science China Press

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  • A cheaper, safer alternative to lithium-ion batteries: aqueous rechargeable batteries

    A cheaper, safer alternative to lithium-ion batteries: aqueous rechargeable batteries

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    Newswise — This summer, the planet is suffering from unprecedented heat waves and heavy rainfalls. Developing renewable energy and expanding associated infrastructure has become an essential survival strategy to ensure the sustainability of the planet in crisis, but it has obvious limitations due to the volatility of electricity production, which relies on uncertain variables like labile weather conditions. For this reason, the demand for energy storage systems (ESS) that can store and supply electricity as needed is ever-increasing, but lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) currently employed in ESS are not only highly expensive, but also prone to potential fire, so there is an urgent need to develop cheaper and safer alternatives.

    A research team led by Dr. Oh, Si Hyoung of the Energy Storage Research Center at the Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST) has developed a highly safe aqueous rechargeable battery that can offer a timely substitute that meets the cost and safety needs. Despite of lower energy density achievable, aqueous rechargeable batteries have a significant economic advantage as the cost of raw materials is much lower than LIBs. However, inveterate hydrogen gas generated from parasitic water decomposition causes a gradual rise in internal pressure and eventual depletion of the electrolyte, which poses a sizeable threat on the battery safety, making commercialization difficult.

    Until now, researchers have often tried to evade this issue by installing a surface protection layer that minimizes the contact area between the metal anode and the electrolyte. However, the corrosion of the metal anode and accompanying decomposition of water in the electrolyte is inevitable in most cases, and incessant accumulation of hydrogen gas can cause a potential detonation in long-term operation.

    To cope with this critical issue, the research team has developed a composite catalyst consisting of manganese dioxide and palladium, which is capable of automatically converting hydrogen gas generated inside the cell into water, ensuring both the performance and safety of the cell. Manganese dioxide does not react with hydrogen gas under normal circumstances, but when a small amount of palladium is added, hydrogen is readily absorbed by the catalysts, being regenerated into water. In the prototype cell loaded with the newly developed catalysts, the internal pressure of the cell was maintained well below the safety limit, and no electrolyte depletion was observed.

    The results of this research effectively solves one of the most concerning safety issues in the aqueous batteries, making a major stride towards commercial application to ESS in the future. Replacing LIBs by cheaper and safer aqueous batteries can even trigger a rapid growth of global market for ESS.

    “This technology pertains to a customized safety strategy for aqueous rechargeable batteries, based on the built-in active safety mechanism, through which risk factors are automatically controlled.” said Dr. Oh, Si Hyoung of KIST. “Moreover, it can be applied to various industrial facilities where hydrogen gas leakage is one of major safety concerns (for instance, hydrogen gas station, nuclear power plant etc) to protect public safety.”

     

    ###

    KIST was established in 1966 as the first government-funded research institute in Korea. KIST now strives to solve national and social challenges and secure growth engines through leading and innovative research. For more information, please visit KIST’s website at https://eng.kist.re.kr/

    This research was supported by the Ministry of Science and ICT (Minister Lee Jong-ho) through the Nano Future Material Source Technology Development Project and the Mid-Career Researcher Support Project, and the results were published on August 1 in the international journal Energy Storage Materials (IF 20.4).

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    National Research Council of Science and Technology

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  • Killing Remains a Threat to Bornean Orangutans

    Killing Remains a Threat to Bornean Orangutans

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    Newswise — PhD candidate Emily Massingham from UQ’s Faculty of Science managed a team of researchers which visited 79 villages across the Bornean orangutan range in Kalimantan, conducting face to face interviews with 431 people.

    “Our study builds on previous research which indicated killing was one of the key reasons for orangutan population decline, alongside habitat loss,” Ms Massingham said.

    “The aim of our project was to understand whether orangutans have been killed in recent times, to look at whether conservation projects are effectively preventing killing, and to gain insights into community perceptions and the motivations behind it.

    “It has been almost 15 years since the previous study, and we did not find a clear decrease in killings despite Indonesia’s commendable efforts to reduce habitat loss.

    “Thirty per cent of villages reported orangutans had been killed in the last 5 -10 years, despite the practice being both illegal and taboo – which also makes it hard to get an accurate picture of the true scale.”

    Ms Massingham said Borneo’s orangutan population had decreased by 100,000 in recent decades, with current estimates suggesting fewer than 100,000 animals remain.

    “Our findings did not indicate that conservation projects are reducing killing, highlighting an urgent need to improve the collective approach to orangutan conservation,” she said.

    “Killing by humans needs to be addressed, as our findings suggest it may still be occurring and poses a real threat to the species.”

    Ms Massingham said orangutans have long lifespans and breed slowly, so are particularly vulnerable to population declines driven by the death of adult apes.  

    “Our interviews revealed some of the situations which lead to the killing or displacement of individual orangutans,” she said.

    “They include protecting crops and taking infant apes to keep as pets.”

    The researchers outlined recommendations that could improve future conservation efforts.

    “Working with communities and collaborating across disciplines and projects will be key,” Ms Massingham said.

    “Conservationists need to work closely with individual villages to understand their needs and perspectives, identify the social drivers of killing of orangutans and implement solutions that reduce human-orangutan conflict.”

    The research was conducted under a RISTEK permit, with the engagement of a local social development organisation to facilitate fieldwork.

    This research is published in Conservation Science and Practice. 

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    University of Queensland

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  • Illinois Researchers Prove That New Method Can Be Used to Measure Ozone Stress in Soybeans

    Illinois Researchers Prove That New Method Can Be Used to Measure Ozone Stress in Soybeans

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    BYLINE: Mike Koon

    Newswise — As the world focuses on not only solving the climate crisis but also sustaining the world’s food supply, researchers need tools to evaluate how atmospheric pollutants affect crops. Over the past decade, the agriculture community has turned to solar-induced chlorophyll fluorescence (SIF) measurements to detect stresses on plants.

    Plants absorb light from the sun to power photosynthesis, and the unused energy is emitted as heat and a tiny glow invisible to human eyes, termed fluorescence. Ever since the first global SIF map was generated in 2011, SIF has been used by researchers to investigate photosynthesis dynamics. For instance, it has been used to determine how high levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) or elevated temperature affect a plant’s properties.

    Now a team from the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign and the USDA Agricultural Research Service has used SIF to measure the effects of elevated ozone (O3) on soybean plants. The team published its findings in the Journal of Experimental Botany (https://academic.oup.com/jxb/advance-article/doi/10.1093/jxb/erad356/7272702).

    “Researchers have found SIF to be a faster, safer, and noninvasive way to study photosynthesis,” noted Genghong Wu, the work’s first author and the former PhD student at the Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences, under the supervision of Prof. Kaiyu Guan, the senior author of the work. “That is why it has become so popular. The novelty of this study is that for the first time, SIF was used to measure elevated ozone stress on soybeans in the field.”

    Ozone is a damaging air pollutant that is costly to farmers. The SoyFACE facility provides a testbed for studying the effects of ozone pollution in the field. It is managed by USDA ARS scientist and Prof. Lisa Ainsworth. For the current study, she designed the elevated O3 experiment with four plots as a control, and other four plots with higher amounts of O3. The team used a portable spectroscopic system placed about half meter above the plant canopy to take its measurements on both control and elevated O3 plots.They found that increased O3 levels resulted in a decrease in SIF, by as much as 36 percent during the late growing season.

    Other processes associated with photosynthesis, such as electron transport and leaf-gas exchange, were simultaneously measured along with SIF. “As we observed those levels decrease with higher ozone levels, it confirmed to us that a decrease in SIF is a sign of stress,” Ainsworth said.

    Although SIF is directly related to photosynthesis — the process by which plants absorb light and turn it into chemical energy — it isn’t the only factor to influence SIF. But Wu notes that plant photosynthesis, combined with measures of the size of the plants[MAD3], can give farmers a good estimate of yield.

    One of the advantages of SIF is that it is scalable. Wu is currently studying in Germany with colleagues, who use aircraft flying 1 kilometer off the ground to evaluate SIF’s effects on an entire field. Alongside Prof. Kaiyu Guan, the Founding Director of the Agroecosystem Sustainability Center and a fellow investigator on this study, Wu hopes to use the method to track photosynthesis in regions around the world from a satellite orbiting the Earth.

    “We want to use SIF to estimate or to monitor the dynamics of photosynthesis on a regional or global scale,” Wu reiterated. “To do that, we need to also further understand the mechanistic relationship between SIF and photosynthesis.”

    The experiments that these colleagues did at SoyFACE to link SIF to air pollution are helping build that mechanistic understanding.

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    College of Agricultural, Consumer and Environmental Sciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign

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  • Climate-driven heat may render parts of Earth uninhabitable

    Climate-driven heat may render parts of Earth uninhabitable

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    Newswise — If global temperatures increase by 1 degree Celsius (C) or more than current levels, each year billions of people will be exposed to heat and humidity so extreme they will be unable to naturally cool themselves, according to interdisciplinary research from the Penn State College of Health and Human Development, Purdue University College of Sciences and Purdue Institute for a Sustainable Future. 

    Results from a new article published today (Oct. 9) in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences indicated that warming of the planet beyond 1.5 C above preindustrial levels will be increasingly devastating for human health across the planet.  

    Humans can only withstand certain combinations of heat and humidity before their bodies begin to experience heat-related health problems, such as heat stroke or heart attack. As climate change pushes temperatures higher around the world, billions of people could be pushed beyond these limits.  

    Since the start of the industrial revolution, when humans began to burn fossil fuels in machines and factories, temperatures around the world have increased by about 1 C, or 1.8 degrees Fahrenheit (F). In 2015, 196 nations signed the Paris Agreement which aims to limit worldwide temperature increases to 1.5 C above pre-industrial levels.  

    The researcher team modeled global temperature increases ranging between 1.5 C and 4 C — considered the worst-case scenario where warming would begin to accelerate — to identify areas of the planet where warming would lead to heat and humidity levels that exceed human limits. 

    “To understand how complex, real-world problems like climate change will affect human health, you need expertise both about the planet and the human body,” said co-author W. Larry Kenney, professor of physiology and kinesiology, the Marie Underhill Noll Chair in Human Performance at Penn State and co-author of the new study. “I am not a climate scientist, and my collaborators are not physiologists. Collaboration is the only way to understand the complex ways that the environment will affect people’s lives and begin to develop solutions to the problems that we all must face together.” 

    A threat to billions 

    The ambient wet-bulb temperature limit for young, healthy people is about 31 C, which is equal to 87.8 F at 100% humidity, according to work published last year by Penn State researchers. However, in addition to temperature and humidity, the specific threshold for any individual at a specific moment also depends on their exertion level and other environmental factors, including wind speed and solar radiation. In human history, temperatures and humidity that exceed human limits have been recorded only a limited number of times — and only for a few hours at a time — in the Middle East and Southeast Asia, according to the researchers.  

    Results of the study indicate that if global temperatures increase by 2 C above pre-industrial levels, the 2.2 billion residents of Pakistan and India’s Indus River Valley, the one billion people living in eastern China and the 800 million residents of sub-Saharan Africa will annually experience many hours of heat that surpass human tolerance. 

    These regions would primarily experience high-humidity heatwaves. Heatwaves with higher humidity can be more dangerous because the air cannot absorb excess moisture, which limits sweat evaporates from human bodies and moisture from some infrastructure, like evaporative coolers. Troublingly, researchers said, these regions are also in lower-to-middle income nations, so many of the affected people may not have access to air conditioning or any effective way to mitigate the negative health effects of the heat. 

    If warming of the planet continues to 3 C above pre-industrial levels, the researchers concluded, heat and humidity levels that surpass human tolerance would begin to affect the Eastern Seaboard and the middle of the United States — from Florida to New York and from Houston to Chicago. South America and Australia would also experience extreme heat at that level of warming.  

    At current levels of heating, the researchers said, the United States will experience more heatwaves, but these heatwaves are not predicted to surpass human limits as often as in other regions of the world. Still, the researchers cautioned that these types of models often do not account for the worst, most unusual weather events.  

    “Models like these are good at predicting trends, but they do not predict specific events like the 2021 heatwave in Oregon that killed more than 700 people or London reaching 40 C last summer,” said lead author Daniel Vecellio, a bioclimatologist who completed a postdoctoral fellowship at Penn State with Kenney. “And remember, heat levels then were all below the limits of human tolerance that we identified. So, even though the United States will escape some of the worst direct effects of this warming, we will see deadly and unbearable heat more often. And — if temperatures continue to rise — we will live in a world where crops are failing and millions or billions of people are trying to migrate because their native regions are uninhabitable.” 

    Understanding human limits and future warming 

    Over the last several years, Kenney and his collaborators have conducted 462 separate experiments to document the combined levels of heat, humidity and physical exertion that humans can tolerate before their bodies can no longer maintain a stable core temperature.  

    “As people get warmer, they sweat, and more blood is pumped to their skin so that they can maintain their core temperatures by losing heat to the environment,” Kenney said. “At certain levels of heat and humidity, these adjustments are no longer sufficient, and body core temperature begins to rise. This is not an immediate threat, but it does require some form of relief. If people do not find a way to cool down within hours, it can lead to heat exhaustion, heat stroke and strain on the cardiovascular system that can lead to heart attacks in vulnerable people.” 

    In 2022, Kenney, Vecellio and their collaborators demonstrated that the limits of heat and humidity people can withstand are lower than were previously theorized.  

    “The data collected by Kenney’s team at Penn State provided much needed empirical evidence about the human body’s ability to tolerate heat. Those studies were the foundation of these new predictions about where climate change will create conditions that humans cannot tolerate for long,” said co-author Matthew Huber, professor of earth, atmospheric and planetary sciences at Purdue University. 

    When this work was published, Huber, who had already begun work on mapping the impacts of climate change, contacted Vecellio about a potential collaboration. Huber had previously published widely cited work proposing a theoretical limit of humans’ heat and humidity limits. 

    The researchers, along with Huber’s graduate student, Qinqin Kong, decided to explore how people would be affected in different regions of the world if the planet warmed by between 1.5 C and 4 C. The researchers said that 3 C is the best estimate of how much the planet will warm by 2100 if no action is taken. 

    “Around the world, official strategies for adapting to the weather focus on temperature only,” Kong said. “But this research shows that humid heat is going to be a much bigger threat than dry heat. Governments and policymakers need to re-evaluate the effectiveness of heat-mitigation strategies to invest in programs that will address the greatest dangers people will face.” 

    Staying safe in the heat 

    Regardless of how much the planet warms, the researchers said that people should always be concerned about extreme heat and humidity — even when they remain below the identified human limits. In preliminary studies of older populations, Kenney found that older adults experience heat stress and the associated health consequences at lower heat and humidity levels than young people. 

    “Heat is already the weather phenomenon that kills the most people in the United States,” Vecellio, now a postdoctoral researcher at George Mason University’s Virginia Climate Center, said. “People should care for themselves and their neighbors — especially the elderly and sick — when heatwaves hit.” 

    The data used in this study examined the body’s core temperatures, but the researchers said that during heatwaves, people experience health problems from other causes as well. For example, Kenney said that most of the 739 people who died during Chicago’s 1995 heatwave were over 65 and experienced a combination of high body temperature and cardiovascular problems, leading to heart attacks and other cardiovascular causes of death. 

    Looking to the future 

    To stop temperatures from increasing, the researchers cite decades of research indicating that humans must reduce the emission of greenhouse gases, especially the carbon dioxide emitted by burning fossil fuels. If changes are not made, middle-income and low-income countries will suffer the most, Vecellio said.  

    As one example, the researchers pointed to Al Hudaydah, Yemen, a port city of more than 700,000 people on the Red Sea. Results of the study indicated that if the planet warms by 4 C, this city can expect more than 300 days when temperatures exceed the limits of human tolerance every year, making it almost uninhabitable.  

    “The worst heat stress will occur in regions that are not wealthy and that are expected to experience rapid population growth in the coming decades,” Huber said. “This is true despite the fact that these nations generate far fewer greenhouse gas emissions than wealthy nations. As a result, billions of poor people will suffer, and many could die. But wealthy nations will suffer from this heat as well, and in this interconnected world, everyone can expect to be negatively affected in some way.” 

    This research was supported by grants from the National Institute on Aging, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and the National Science Foundation. 

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    Penn State University

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  • Studying Grand Canyon’s Past for Climate Insights

    Studying Grand Canyon’s Past for Climate Insights

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    Newswise — The Grand Canyon’s valleys and millions of years of rock layers spanning Earth’s history have earned it a designation as one of the Seven Natural Wonders of the World. But, according to a new UNLV and University of New Mexico study, its marvels extend to vast cave systems that lie beneath the surface, which just might hold clues to better understand the future of climate change — by studying nature’s past.

    A research team led by UNLV paleoclimatologist and Professor Matthew Lachniet that included the University of New Mexico Department of Earth & Planetary Sciences Distinguished Professor Yemane Asmerom and Research Scientist Victor Polyak and other collaborators, studied an ancient stalagmite from the floor of an undisturbed Grand Canyon cave. By studying the mineral deposits’ geochemistry, they were able to analyze precipitation patterns during the rapidly warming period following the last Ice Age to improve understanding of the potential impact of future climate change on summer monsoon rains in the U.S. Southwest and northwestern Mexico.

    Their findings, “Elevated Grand Canyon groundwater recharge during the warm Early Holocene,” published Oct. 2 in Nature Geoscience, revealed that increasing levels of water seeped into the cave between 8,500 and 14,000 years ago, during a period known as the early Holocene when temperatures rose throughout the region. Using a paleoclimate model, the researchers determined that this was likely caused by intensified and expanded summer rainfall stemming from atmospheric impacts on air circulation patterns that more quickly melted the winter snowpacks and sped up the evaporation process that fuels monsoon rains. 

    This is significant, authors say, because most of the water currently infiltrating through the bedrock and into caves and aquifers — and contributing to groundwater recharge — comes from winter snowmelt. During the early Holocene, however, when peak temperatures were only slightly warmer than today, both summer and winter moisture contributed to groundwater recharge in the region.

    The authors suggest that future warming, which could cause temperatures to rise above those of the early Holocene, may also lead to greater rates of summer rainfall on the high-elevation Colorado Plateau and an intensifying North American monsoon, the pattern of pronounced and increased thunderstorms and precipitation that typically occur between June and mid-September.

    “What was surprising about our results is that during this past warm period, both the summer monsoon and infiltration into the cave increased, which suggests that summer was important for Grand Canyon groundwater recharge, even though today it is not an important season for recharge,” said Lachniet, who personally retrieved the stalagmite from a cave in the Redwall Formation on the South Rim of eastern Grand Canyon in 2017. “While we still expect the region to dry in the future, more intense summer rainfall may actually infiltrate into the subsurface more than it does today.”

    Stalagmites are common cave formations that act as ancient rain gauges that record historic climate change. They grow as mineral-rich waters seep through the ground above and drop from the tips of stalactites on cave ceilings. Calcite minerals from tiny drops of water accumulate over thousands of years and, much like tree rings, accurately record the rainfall history of an area. Three natural forms of oxygen are found in water, and the quantity of one form decreases as rainfall increases. This information is

    locked into the stalagmites over time. Because of the distinct difference in the oxygen isotope composition between summer and winter precipitation, it is possible to estimate the relative contributions from each season. Variation in uranium 234 isotope and changes in the growth thickness of stalagmite give indication of the change in the amount of precipitation. 

    “We were able to validate the oxygen record with the growth data, with the uranium isotope data to confirm that in fact, we see significant increases in summer moisture during this warm period, which we attribute is to the monsoon,” said Asmerom. “Obviously, we know things very precisely in terms of timing because we know how to date things. This is something that we are known for around the world using these methods”, Polyak added.

    The research team used stalagmite samples to reconstruct groundwater recharge rates — or the amount of water that penetrates the aquifers — in the Grand Canyon area during the early years of the Holocene period. High groundwater recharge rates likely occurred on other high-elevation plateaus in the region, too, they said, though it’s unclear how the activity applies to hotter, low-elevation deserts.   

    What is clear is that ongoing human-caused climate change is leading to hotter temperatures throughout southwestern North America, including the Grand Canyon region. Alongside population growth and agricultural pressures, this warming can reduce the infiltration of surface water into groundwater aquifers. Groundwater recharge rates also depend on the frequency and intensity of summer rains associated with monsoon season.

    Though summer infiltration isn’t a significant contributor to groundwater recharge in the region today, these latest findings suggest that could change in the future as the climate warms and monsoonal moisture increases. What’s unknown is how a projected decrease in winter precipitation and snowpack could impact overall groundwater reserves.

    In a previous study led by UNM’s Asmerom and published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, they found that the North American monsoon is likely to intensify with increased warming. But there were other, mostly model-based studies that suggested otherwise. The new study is consistent with Asmerom and colleagues’ previous study. 

    “Unfortunately, effective moisture is the balance between precipitation and evaporation. Unlike the more temperate Grand Canyon climate, the dry southern part, is likely to be drier, as a result of the increased temperatures,” said Asmerom.

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    University of New Mexico

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  • Smaller carbon, more comfort

    Smaller carbon, more comfort

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    Newswise — Osaka, Japan – As organizations work to reduce their energy consumption and associated carbon emissions, one area that remains to be optimized is indoor heating and cooling. In fact, HVAC – which stands for Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning – represents, on average, about 40% of a building’s total energy use. Methods that conserve electricity while still providing a comfortable indoor environment for workers could make a significant difference in the fight against climate change.

    Now, researchers from Osaka University have demonstrated significant energy savings through the application of a new, AI-driven algorithm for controlling HVAC systems. This method does not require complex physics modelling, or even detailed previous knowledge about the building itself.

    During cold weather, it is sometimes challenging for conventional sensor-based systems to determine when the heating should be shut off. This is due to thermal interference from lighting, equipment, or even the heat produced by the workers themselves. This can lead to the HVAC being activated when it should not be, wasting energy.

    To overcome these obstacles, the researchers employed a control algorithm that worked to predict the thermodynamic response of the building based on data collected. This approach can be more effective than attempting to explicitly calculate the impact of the multitude of complex factors that might affect the temperature, such as insulation and heat generation. Thus, with enough information, ‘data driven’ approaches can often outperform even sophisticated models. Here, the HVAC control system was designed to ‘learn’ the symbolic relationships between the variables, including power consumption, based on a large dataset.

    The algorithm was able to save energy while still allowing the building occupants to work in comfort. “Our autonomous system showed significant energy savings, of 30% or more for office buildings, by leveraging the predictive power of machine learning to optimize the times the HVAC should operate.” says lead author Dafang Zhao. “Importantly, the rooms were comfortably warm despite it being winter.”

    The algorithm worked to minimize the total energy consumed, the difference between the actual and desired room temperature, and change in the rate of power output at peak demand. “Our system can be easily customized to prioritize energy conservation or temperature accuracy, depending on the needs of the situation,” adds senior author Ittetsu Taniguchi.

    To collectively achieve the goal of a carbon-neutral economy, it is highly likely that corporations will need to be at the vanguard of innovation. The researchers note that their approach may enjoy rapid adoption during times of rising energy costs, which makes their findings good for both the environment as well as company viability.

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    Osaka University

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  • American University and Football for Peace Join Forces to Promote Sports Diplomacy, Launch Peace Center

    American University and Football for Peace Join Forces to Promote Sports Diplomacy, Launch Peace Center

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    Newswise — American University’s School of International Service (SIS) and Football for Peace (FfP), an international sports diplomacy non-government organization headquartered in London, UK, with the support of the Maryland Sports Commission, are launching the first Football for Peace Center in the United States. The Peace Center will address pressing social and environmental challenges in the U.S. and around the world, focusing on youth empowerment, water prosperity, and societal advocacy.

    “SIS has a long history of promoting leadership in peace and conflict resolution and addressing issues like poverty; geography; and water justice, including access to clean water, that contribute to conflict,” said SIS Dean Shannon Hader, MD, MPH. “Through this partnership and the growth of the Peace Center, we will host a variety of programs and events, reaffirming our dedication to creating positive change and ‘waging peace’ worldwide.”

    The FfP Peace Center will serve as a platform for community service, global campaigns, advocacy, and youth engagement for marginalized communities in the Washington, D.C., Maryland, and Virginia area, as well as for AU students, alumni, and partners, uniquely leveraging the power and popularity of both soccer and American football. As one of the new Center’s initiatives, SIS faculty and students will share their expertise in water politics and justice to support Football for Peace’s Rehydrate the Earth campaign, which will be formally launched later ahead of World Water Day 2024. The campaign is the world’s first global football-led water campaign.

    “It’s great for Football for Peace U.S.A. to be partnering with such a prestigious university like American University and its School of International Service,” said Josh R. Norman, NFL Cornerback & founding board member of FfP USA. “Our heritage comes from professional sports, and we consider football, both soccer and American Football, to have a unique ability to reach far beyond ethnic, religious, social, or environmental differences. We hope to make a lot of a positive impact in the U.S.A.”

    “I am so proud to come back to the States and work with some amazing partners after spending many years playing college soccer, which taught me positive values on and off the pitch. This partnership aligns perfectly with the upcoming World Cup; soccer touches five billion people and has the power to move masses,” said Kash Siddiqi, FfP co-founder and former professional soccer player. “Through this dynamic partnership, we’re not just coming together; we’re playing a pivotal role in promoting peace through soccer and football. Together, we’re turning our shared commitment into advancing Sports Diplomacy Actions locally and internationally. The announcement of the inaugural Capitol Region Football for Peace Center is a significant step toward making this vision a reality.”

    The partnership will provide American University students the opportunity to become involved in sports diplomacy through FfP’s Most Valuable Peacemakers (MVP) Award, an initiative that honours young leaders, renowned athletes, and dignitaries for their efforts in tackling local and global issues and making a positive impact in their communities. Launched in 2015, the MVP Award allows youth to hear from professional athletes and offers soccer training opportunities and community service through soccer. This transformative experience empowers participants to cultivate their peace-building skills through empathy, compassion, and service to others.

    The new Center will also create internship opportunities for students to participate in the Football for Peace projects with a global focus, including Peace Matches. The partnership will also aim to offer opportunities to AU faculty to lead and assist with initiatives to further AU’s mission of creating positive change around the world.

    “Today’s announcement with American University is the first major step for Football for Peace, in an ongoing effort, to partner strategically with a distinguished academic institution while fostering and advocating the growth and mission of the organization in the United States,” said Terry Hasseltine, Executive Director, Maryland Sports Commission and President of the Sport & Entertainment Corporation of Maryland. “Working with a global initiative like Football for Peace, and now their Peace Center at American University, will elevate our long-term legacy footprint for the next generation here in Maryland, while creating the potential to expand regionally and nationally.”

    The agreement between AU SIS and FfP was celebrated during a special event on the AU campus that focused on the impact of sports diplomacy and featured prominent speakers, including Brenda Abdelall, Assistant Secretary, U.S. Department of Homeland Security; George Atallah, assistant executive director of external affairs for the NFL Players Association; Terry Hasseltine, President of the Maryland Sports Commission; Josh Norman, NFL former Washington Commanders’ top cornerback; Oguchi Onyewu, former US Men’s soccer national team Captain and Vice President of Sporting, United States Soccer Federation; tennis star Francis Tiafoe; and Brenden Varma, Deputy Director, UN Information Center.

    About American University’s School of International Service

    American University’s School of International Service (SIS) is a top-10 school of international affairs located in Washington, D.C. Since the school’s founding in 1957, we have answered President Dwight D. Eisenhower’s call to prepare students of international affairs to “wage peace.” SIS produces transformational research and prepares more than 3,000 graduate and undergraduate students for global careers in government, nonprofits, and business. Our students take advantage of Washington’s wealth of resources and professional opportunities—and an active international network of more than 25,000 alumni. They graduate prepared to combine knowledge and practice and to serve the global community as emerging leaders, waging peace and building understanding in our world.

    About Football for Peace

    Football for Peace (FfP) as an organization was inspired by the work of FIFA and Chilean legend Elias Figueroa. In 2013, Kashif Siddiqi, a former international soccer player and soccer diplomat launched Football for Peace internationally. FfP is a sports diplomacy NGO. Its mission is to advance sports diplomacy initiatives that address pressing social and environmental issues, leveraging the unique combination of football and soccer to serve communities in the United States and around the world.

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    American University

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