Tag: Diet & Nutrition

You may have noticed your supermarket offering more types of vinegar lately. Sure, balsamic and apple cider vinegars are veterans of the condiments aisle, but new shelf neighbors, like coconut, champagne, pomegranate, and raspberry are moving in.

That’s probably at least in part due to recent research showing that small amounts of vinegar, consumed daily, could support your health in important ways. But which vinegars are evidence-backed to promote health, in addition to lending some zing to your cooking? 

Here’s what research says about vinegar’s effects on blood sugar, obesity, and fighting colds—and which kind to reach for.

A long-standing tonic

Since the Babylonians first made vinegar about 7,000 years ago, cultures around the world have used it for medicinal purposes. Hippocrates mixed apple cider vinegar with honey to treat ancient Greeks’ respiratory troubles. Europeans in the Middle Ages believed it protected against the plague, while the Chinese used rice vinegar to treat pain. 

Several scientific studies later, dietitians such as New Jersey-based Erin Palinski-Wade are increasingly recommending vinegar to their clients. “What I love about using vinegar is that it may offer a variety of benefits with little to no downside,” she says.

What makes vinegar special

One defining ingredient could explain vinegar’s health benefits: acetic acid. After it’s swallowed, acetic acid turns into acetate, a fatty acid that’s good for digestion, metabolism, and energy production.

Every type of vinegar starts out as some form of sugar, aka carbohydrate—like apples, used to make apple cider vinegar, or grapes, which make red wine vinegar. The carb is pressed into liquid-form and fermented by yeast into alcohol, which is then fermented into acetic acid. This process endows vinegar with significantly more acetic acid than any other food, says Carol Johnston, a professor of nutrition at Arizona State who studies vinegar.

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The FDA requires all vinegars sold in the U.S. to contain at least 4% acetic acid, although different bottles have a range. Some vinegars, especially balsamic, tend to also be high in polyphenols: compounds in plants that protect us from cellular damage, inflammation, and infection. 

Apple cider vinegar

The most researched type is apple cider vinegar, or ACV. Studies show that a bit of ACV before or during meals can drive down blood sugar, or glucose, measured right after eating and, with consistent use, it may contribute to improved blood sugar control over several months. These effects are pronounced with high-carb foods, which could otherwise spike blood sugar. “It’s clear that drinking vinegar with a starchy meal will reduce the amount of glucose in the bloodstream,” Johnston says. 

She and others have found that the acetic acid in ACV affects certain hormones that slow the rate at which the stomach sends food to the intestines. Because the glucose enters the bloodstream more gradually, regular intake of ACV could, over time, reduce the risk of developing Type 2 diabetes.

Small studies also point to healthier weight, perhaps due to vinegar’s slowing effect on the stomach. And recent research found lower blood fat levels in overweight adults who consumed ACV, suggesting better heart health, in addition to lower glucose. 

Most of these benefits have been researched at 2-4 tablespoons per day. But larger studies are needed, says Sapha Shibeeb, a senior lecturer in laboratory medicine at RMIT University in Australia who published a research review on ACV. “There is an effect, but we have to be careful in saying what kind of effect and the magnitude.”

The mother of all benefits

Some brands of ACV are unfiltered and unpasteurized, with a distinctly visible result: a cloudy substance floating in its liquid. This hazy residue, called “the mother,” contains bits of proteins and healthful enzymes and bacteria from fermentation. Companies claim the mother contributes to ACV’s benefits—and charge more for these raw ACVs.

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Some scientists think it’s worth it. In her lab, Darsha Yagnik, an immunologist at Middlesex University, has found that ACV with the mother is uniquely potent in helping immune cells kill off pathogenic microbes in the lab. “When I looked at other vinegars, they weren’t as effective,” she says, such as stronger acids you wouldn’t eat, like sulphuric. “The mother includes microbiome-friendly bacteria which support digestive immunity and nutrient absorption,” Yagnik says.

Based on this research, Yagnik thinks that ACV, in addition to improving blood sugar, can help stave off illness—just as the ancients believed. Yagnik always packs small bottles of ACV, diluted with water, when traveling on the tube in London. “If someone nearby has a cold, I’ll have a little,” she says. “I think it absolutely helps.”

“Because the mother contains bacteria, it could be beneficial as part of a healthy microbiome in the gut,” Shibeeb adds. He notes that even the more expensive vinegars with the mother are still fairly cheap.

Others aren’t buying it. Robert Hutkins, a microbiologist at the University of Nebraska, says that, although the mother’s microbes may do wonders in the lab, they can’t compete or thrive in our microbiomes because they need air to survive. “They won’t make much of a living in the gut” for killing pathogens, he explains. 

Johnston says the mother has only “trace amounts” of healthy substances, yielding nothing beyond the benefits of acetic acid. “It doesn’t pay to get the ones with the mother,” she says. “Right now, the science is with the acetic acid,” which is in all vinegars regardless of type, for benefits like reducing blood sugar.

Vinegar’s fermentation may have advantages 

Vinegar’s fermentation process differs from fermented vegetables like cucumbers and cabbage, which may translate into some unique benefits.  

Vegetables are fermented using healthy microbes. When eaten, the microbes go through the gut microbiome, where they slowly produce several fatty acids that fight infections and inflammation.  

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One of these fatty acids is acetate. But when making vinegar, fruit fermentation may work more directly. The fruit fermentation yields acetic acid, which gets turned into acetate well before reaching your gut—so it’s more rapidly absorbed, potentially making it a valuable source of energy for the cells. “Basically, what you’re doing is bypassing the need for the microbiome to do the work,” Johnston says.

Fermented foods like vegetables with live microbes provide equally important—or perhaps greater—benefits. “I’m a big advocate of including these fermented foods in one’s diet,” Hutkins says. Aim for a mix, including types of vinegar. “ACV isn’t a superfood because there’s no such thing. Each of these foods is just part of an overall healthy diet.”

Red wine and balsamic vinegars

The benefits of ACV probably apply to some other vinegars. ACV is commonly sold in the U.S. simply because apples are popular here, not because they’re especially healthy or flavorful. “It’s marketing,” Johnston says. “In the Mediterranean, they have lots of grapes, so they have more balsamic vinegar and red wine vinegar.”

Johnston has found that a few tablespoons of red wine vinegar, consumed daily, improve glucose control and, in just four weeks, people’s rates of depression go down. Again, vinegar’s acetic acid could be the benefactor; acetate plays a role in improving brain inflammation, plasticity, and overall cognition.

Polyphenols may contribute as well. Red wine vinegar has more polyphenols than other fruit vinegars, with antioxidant effects that may counter depression, wrote the study’s authors.

Another vinegar high in polyphenols is balsamic, especially versions made in parts of Italy. “The polyphenols are concentrated,” Johnston says, resulting in a thicker, darker vinegar. Look for bottles, albeit pricier ones, with designations of production in the Modena and Reggio Emilia regions. Balsamic vinegar, combined with food, may slow down stomach enzymes for better digestion.

The rest of the pack

Some findings suggest rice vinegar offers similar benefits. Fewer studies have looked at other vinegars, such as coconut, pomegranate, or sugarcane. Limited research suggests that sugarcane vinegar, for instance, lowers blood fats. 

These less-studied vinegars have lower acetic acid and polyphenols than apple cider, red wine, and balsamic. But they still offer more acetic acid than non-vinegar foods; Palinksi-Wade recommends letting your flavor preferences guide you. They also may contain at least some of the nutrients from their original food sources, compared to standard white vinegars, which are produced through a simpler fermentation process that strips away most of the potentially beneficial compounds, Hutkins adds.

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Last year, Hutkins and colleagues at Georgetown University Medical Center found that drinking kombucha—containing vinegar, live microbes, and other beneficial ingredients like ginger—affects blood glucose positively. 

How to drink vinegar

While vinegar may be good for you, “it’s not a drug,” Johnston notes. As part of an overall healthy diet, “it’s going to have a more gradual effect on measures like blood sugar” than pharmaceuticals.

Precautions should be taken with vinegar due to its acetic acid; in concentrated forms, it can damage the teeth, mouth, and throat. Avoid straight-up vinegar shots. Mix it with water, juice, or food. “Let’s not overdo this,” Johnston says. “You’re dealing with an acid.”

People who have chronic kidney disease should be particularly careful with their vinegar consumption, since their kidneys are challenged to process the excess acid from vinegar.

Dilute one tablespoon into 8 ounces of fluid, Palinski-Wade says, and consider drinking through a straw. “Maybe gargle with water afterward, just to make sure your tooth enamel is protected,” Yagnik suggests.

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Avoid having more than four tablespoons per day. “The highest you’d go is two tablespoons with one meal, and two tablespoons with a second meal that day,” Johnston says. If you’re new to vinegar, start slowly with one daily tablespoon. “Build up gradually to avoid any digestive issues,” Palinski-Wade says.

For blood sugar benefits, have vinegar before your heaviest meals, Shibeeb says. Yagnik takes it 5-10 minutes after eating in hopes of helping her immunity.

If you’re cooking vinegar to make a sauce, like a balsamic reduction, you’re probably losing some of the acetic acid, along with some benefits, Hutkins says.

Pending further research, we don’t yet know the long-term benefits of regular vinegar intake, nor its side effects. Studies as long as 12 weeks don’t reveal any notable downsides, at least. Based on what we know today, “experimenting with vinegar in the diet is a great option for most individuals,” Palinski-Wade says, “with little risk.”

Growing up in Scotland, Nigel Brockton envisioned one day becoming a marine biologist. But after battling a rare and deadly cancer twice before finishing college, he turned to cancer research, determined to help others reduce their risk.

He was ahead of his time. Back then in the early 1990s, despite the American Cancer Society focusing on cancer prevention, many people thought that people got cancer mainly because of inherited genes and bad luck, like being struck like lightning, Brockton says. Non-scientists may still think that way, but research is painting a different picture: about 40% of all cancers could be thwarted by mitigating certain risk factors, especially through a healthier lifestyle.

Nutrition plays a big role in this lifestyle. Brockton, a cancer epidemiologist for the nonprofit American Institute for Cancer Research, and other scientists have studied links between unhealthy eating and increased cancer risk, and nutritious substitutes to reduce this risk. Meanwhile, cancer is on the rise among Americans under age 50. “By eating more of the good stuff, we have less of the bad,” Brockton says, “and we can start to turn the tide.” 

Choose the right patterns

When Brockton’s career began, researchers were seeking a “magic bullet”—one or two foods that, eaten consistently, could protect cells from turning cancerous. However, “we now know the full dietary package is what matters,” Brockton says. “It’s much more important than individual foods.”

The right dietary patterns help the body suppress mechanisms that lead to cancer: obesity, chronic inflammation, high blood sugar, a poorly functioning immune system, and an unhealthy microbiome—the tiny organisms in the gut.

The best patterns include Mediterranean, vegetarian, and pescovegetarian diets, loaded with plant-based proteins and fibers. They differ radically from the Standard American Diet, or SAD, dominated by red meat and refined sugars that fuel rather than foil cancer’s mechanisms.

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Yet “nearly the entire U.S. population” eats a SAD, according to the National Cancer Institute. 

Swapping a better dietary pattern drops the average person’s cancer risk by 8-9%, research shows. A lean body weight reduces it by another 7-8%. Recent research using a scoring system developed by NCI and Brockton’s organization, AICR, shows how adopting an overall healthy lifestyle that includes eating more nutritious foods has the biggest effect on bringing down cancer risk, compared to any one specific healthy behavior.

Here are some of the most impactful substitutions. 

EAT LESS: Ultra-processed carbs 

EAT MORE: Healthier carbs

Whole foods with plenty of fiber can help reduce cancer risk. “Fiber is my favorite nutrient for cancer prevention,” says Carrie Daniel-MacDougall, a cancer epidemiologist at MD Anderson Cancer Center. 

Plucked directly from nature, many plant foods provide carbs with a healthy dose of fiber, but frequently the fiber is diminished through ultra-processing en route to your plate. Low-fiber foods, processed with dozens of ingredients, are a sadly common feature of SAD. Examples include instant oatmeal packets, pita bread, white rice, and pasta made from refined flour. If your carbs come mostly from packages with long ingredient lists, you’re likely not getting sufficient fiber to reduce cancer risk.

Trade these carbs for whole plant foods like beans, lentils, and other legumes with high ratios of fiber to carbs. Lentils, for example, can offer 11 grams of fiber per serving. Daniel-MacDougall and her colleagues found links between high-fiber intake and longer survival for cancer patients—and, in animals, fiber increased anti-cancer immune cells. This suggests fiber impedes cancer growth, at least in part, by strengthening the immune system.

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If you think of cancer as a trap with several blades, each representing a different mechanism by which the disease grows, fiber seems to have a dulling effect on each sharp point. One blade is immune dysfunction. Another is obesity, which promotes the spread of cancer cells by causing chronic inflammation, among other problems. People who are overweight have higher rates of 13 kinds of cancer. 

Studies suggest that diets with ample fiber support a healthier weight—partly because fiber promotes feelings of fullness and less overeating. “It’s important to keep weight within your normal BMI range throughout life,” says Dr. Kala Visvanathan, a Johns Hopkins medical oncologist and cancer epidemiologist. “Data show that even 10 pounds less can help bring down cancer risk.”

Daniel-MacDougall notes that fiber can parry another of cancer’s blades: an unhealthy microbiome. Fiber nourishes the beneficial bacteria in the gut. This supports a thriving microbiome, which lowers inflammation, according to Daniel-MacDougall’s research. 

You don’t have to shun your favorite low-fiber carbs; try having smaller portions. Daniel-MacDougall has researched ways of combining them with higher-fiber options. One intriguing combination: whip white beans or chickpeas into lower-fiber mashed potatoes, while using only half the potato. Some of Daniel-MacDougall’s research participants “wouldn’t touch beans with a 10-foot pole” before they started the trial, she says. That changed with the hidden beans trick. “Now you’re having a dish that’s higher in fiber as well as protein.”

LESS: Lots of red or fake meat

MORE: True plant-based proteins

The classic American dinner plate stars a 10-ounce slab of red meat. Its supporting cast members are buttered mashed potatoes and starchy vegetables like peas. Viewed through the prism of cancer risk, this home-style favorite raises multiple red flags. 

“We see a very consistent association between higher red meat consumption and higher cancer risk,” Brockton says. Steak contains a form of iron that, if eaten frequently over many years, may cause chronic inflammation and damage in the digestive system, raising the risk of colorectal cancer, the third most common type.

You don’t need to avoid red meat (such as beef, lamb, and pork) entirely. Brockton sometimes enjoys steak as his protein source. But he and AICR suggest 12-18 ounces of red meat per week, considerably less than many Americans consume. “Only once in a while,” Visvanathan says. 

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Processed meats, such as deli meat, are worse, Brockton says. “They’re more carcinogenic than red meat.” AICR recommends cutting out the cold cuts if possible.

And beware of some meat substitutes, like soy deli meats and veggie hot dogs, with lots  of processed ingredients, Daniel-MacDougall says. “They add all kinds of creepy stuff that may affect gut health and inflammation.” Several of these ingredients may also stimulate the appetite, resulting in bigger meals and weight gain, she adds. 

Try to replace red and processed meats with plant proteins such as tofu, tempeh, and legumes. They’re higher in cancer-protective fiber, without additive chemicals.  

Chicken and fish are smart protein choices, too. Salmon and other fatty fish are high in vitamin D; Visvanathan has researched this vitamin’s role in protecting against breast cancer. Opt for lower-heat cooking methods like steaming or poaching. High heat, such as broiling, can produce carcinogenic compounds, Visvanathan says. 

The New American Plate, a template for the ideal meal developed by AICR, is light on animal meat altogether, calling for only about three ounces, even for chicken and fish. “Meat should be like the condiment,” Brockton says. It’s not the headliner of your plate, just an exciting cameo. 

LESS: Mounds of just one vegetable

MORE: Diverse veggies and fruits

Your plate should feature multiple colorful veggies and whole grains like red lentils or barley. Cruciferous vegetables like broccoli and Brussels sprouts may be particularly beneficial. Have mixed berries for dessert. Regularly eating these plants, with their fiber and anti-inflammatory properties, works to gradually stunt cancerous growth over the years. 

Aim for quantity and diversity beyond “an apple a day” to keep your cancer doctor away. It’s likely that different compounds from various vegetables and fruits, eaten daily, counter cancer synergistically. “Eat more fruits and vegetables of all kinds,” Daniel-MacDougall says. 

LESS: Ultra-processed “plant-based” snacks

MORE: Nuts and unsweetened dried fruit

Some ultra-processed snacks, like chickpea chips and vegan protein bars, are advertised as “plant-based.” Don’t be fooled. “They sit on the shelf and taste delightful but provide almost no nutritional value,” Daniel-MacDougall says.

The refined flour and sugar in these snacks do nothing to reduce disease risk. Technically, even a cookie—Brockton’s personal weakness—is a “plant-based” snack, and “the amount of sugar in some yogurts is crazy,” he notes. Routinely eating foods with these added sugars will spike blood sugar and related hormones, which may cause cancer cells to proliferate over time.

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Easing off of your favorite snack is challenging. Approach it gradually. Instead of yogurt with added sugars, drop fresh fruit into plain yogurt; eating this kind of dairy food, in moderation, is linked to a lower risk of colorectal cancer. Brockton also snacks on granola bars. Though processed, they’re healthier than his preferred cookies. Like trail mix with candy? Try a version with just the nuts and dried fruit.

Almonds and walnuts, in particular, have cancer-fighting powers. “Nuts increase your fiber intake, and they have vitamin E and antioxidants that may help with cancer prevention,” says Bradley Bolling, an associate professor of food science at the University of Wisconsin. Bolling found that eating 28 grams of nuts per day—about a handful of almonds or walnuts—is linked to a lower risk of getting and dying from cancer. Dried fruit without added sugars may have a similar effect, though data are limited, Bolling adds. 

LESS: Alcohol and soda

MORE: Coffee and tea

Avoiding alcohol and soda will take you far in cancer-proofing your diet. “There’s basically no safe threshold for alcohol,” says Teresa Fung, a nutrition researcher at Simmons University. “It increases the risk of cancer in the entire digestive system, from the mouth to the colon, and breast and liver cancer as well.”

Meanwhile, “if you have soda in your everyday life, that is the first one to eliminate,” Brockton says. “It’s the easiest win, with a big impact” on cancer risk.

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Substitute tea or coffee. Some research suggests both have anti-cancer effects, though more studies are needed, Fung says.

LESS: Processed condiments

MORE: Healthier, more natural sauces and seasonings

Don’t discount the role of condiments and sauces in your anti-cancer strategy. Cancer risk goes up with regular intake of ultra-processed ingredients, like those found in some sauces. “Try a smear of hummus instead of mayonnaise on your sandwich,” Daniel-MacDougall says. Other flavor-boosting sauces and seasonings with cancer-fighting nutrients: tomato sauce, salsa, olive oil, vinegar, citrus zests, shallots, garlic, and flaxseed.  

Be mindful of these principles when dining out. Some fast-casual places offer a reasonably healthy bowl, before suggesting you drench it in multiple ultra-processed sauces, Brockton notes.

Cancer remains unpredictable in many ways. Healthy dietary patterns seem particularly effective for lowering the risks of colorectal, breast, and prostate cancers, but findings about other cancers are less clear. Other lifestyle factors, such as exercise, may be just as important as diet. Living a “perfect life” doesn’t guarantee perfect health, Brockton says, but you can reduce risk substantially—and improve the odds that you’ll  “delay cancer until your 80s or 90s instead of your 40s or 50s,” he says. “That’s a totally different proposition.” 

And while these nutritional patterns relate specifically to cancer risk, they overlap with strategies to prevent other diseases like heart disease and diabetes. “It’s two for the price of one,” Visvanathan says. “You’ll get multiple benefits.”

When people are strong and reliable, we describe them as solid, yet the human body is about 60% water. Let’s face it: even the toughest among us is less like concrete, and more like a walking water balloon. Water is essential to most of our bodily functions, like carrying nutrients to our cells and keeping the brain sharp. The problem is that we’re constantly losing water through sweating, peeing, and breathing. We must do our part to keep the balloon full. We must drink fluids.

Drinks are absorbed and retained better when paired with minerals commonly found in food like sodium, potassium, and chloride. It’s important to replenish these minerals, called electrolytes, during tough, lengthy exercise, as sweat ushers them out of the body.

Cue the electrolyte products. Commercials show our favorite pro athletes boosting their electrolytes with sports drinks, powders, and gels—with looks of deep satisfaction etched on their faces—but does the average person actually need these supplements?

Charge up hydration

Electrolytes are key to hydration, mainly because they enhance fluid retention. “Having more electrolytes can trigger more efficient fluid uptake from the gut,” says Kim Barrett, a gastrointestinal physiologist at the University of California, Davis and spokesperson for the American Gastroenterological Association. 

Sodium is the most important electrolyte for staying hydrated. When it’s consumed, sodium hangs around the exterior of cells, where its positive electrical charge attracts water molecules into the bloodstream and tissues. Think of sodium-rich water encircling the cells as “the sea water we took with us” when our ancient ancestors left the oceans to live on land, says Craig Horswill, a professor of exercise and nutrition at the University of Illinois, Chicago. Electrolytes help ensure healthy hydration at the cellular level.

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A negatively-charged electrolyte, chloride, clings to sodium, supporting electrolyte balance, Horswill says. Other kinds, also found in food, prevent sodium levels from cresting too high, which could cause the body to retain excess water, straining the heart and kidneys. Potassium is an electrolyte that offsets sodium by getting the kidneys to filter its salty cousin from the bloodstream. “Sodium, chloride, and potassium are the primary ones to consider,” Horswill says.

If you rely only on plain water without replacing these electrolytes, you’ll start getting headaches and muscle cramps. Eventually, more serious health problems will develop, says Stavros Kavouras, a professor of nutrition and director of the Hydration Science Lab at Arizona State—like swelling of the brain. 

He points to another benefit: people actually end up drinking more water when it contains electrolytes. Otherwise, we often drink too little. “One benefit of sodium is that it maintains the drive to keep drinking and reduces the risk of dehydration,” says Mindy Millard-Stafford, a physiology professor at the George Institute of Technology and director of the Exercise Physiology Lab.

Find the salty sweet spot

But how many electrolytes, especially sodium, do we need?

The normal range for sodium in the body is narrow: the minimum is 135 mg per liter of blood, with the max just a little higher at 145 mg. It’s rare for people to drop below the minimum, partly because electrolytes are so plentiful in food, and partly because light sweat contains relatively few electrolytes during casual exercise. 

“Unless there are significant electrolyte losses during illness or heavy, prolonged sweating, most electrolytes can be replenished by a healthy diet,” Millard-Stafford says.

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It’s also “very challenging” to get too many electrolytes, Barrett says. But that doesn’t mean you should eat pickles all day, she adds, especially for those with hypertension. Some populations, including African-Americans, tend to have more salt sensitivity. Meanwhile, extremely high potassium levels can be toxic.

Who really needs electrolytes?

It turns out that electrolyte supplements, popularized through ads featuring sweat-drenched pro athletes, are mostly useful for…sweat-drenched pro athletes. But these supplements can also benefit us exercise-commoners in certain situations.

One example is people working outside throughout the day in high heat, such as construction workers, delivery drivers, landscapers, and farm laborers. “Workers exposed to hot environments for over two hours need to start replacing electrolytes,” says Hayden Hess, a professor of exercise science at the University of Buffalo. If they just drink water, “they’re essentially diluting the blood.”

In these conditions, guidance from the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends having fluids every 15-20 minutes while prioritizing electrolytes—and this doesn’t necessarily mean downing sports drinks. Workers can refuel electrolytes with meals and snacks.

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Similar advice applies to lengthy leisure activities. When hiking for several hours on a warm day, for instance, “electrolytes could become important for maintaining optimal hydration,” Kavouras says. 

Another example is training for a long-distance race in hot weather. “Beyond two or three hours, the electrolyte imbalance starts to become an issue, and supplementing becomes important—or you could just salt food a bit more,” Kavouras says. Research shows that when fluid loss results in overall body mass dropping by just 2%, sports performance starts to decline, and the risk of heat illness rises. 

With shorter exercise—say 30 minutes to an hour—you may not need any electrolyte supplements. Your levels won’t change much, Kavouras says. “You’ll complete your electrolyte needs by eating regular foods.”

Salty sweaters, beware

Some people need to replenish electrolytes more than others. “Whether replacing them is warranted depends on the individual, particularly with salt-loss sweat,” Millard-Stafford says.

People vary widely in how much they lose—from 200 all the way up to 1,800 mg of sodium per liter of sweat. One study found that 20% of runners were salty sweaters. A separate but related issue: how much you sweat overall. “The worst combination is if you’re a salty sweater and a heavy sweater,” Kavouras says. Those who perspire salty and heavy may have large electrolyte losses with shorter workouts, making supplements more important. Commercially available tests can determine your sweat type.

Another individual difference is how much salty food you regularly consume. Most people in the U.S. consume too much (up to 2,300 mg of sodium is recommended per day, yet the average of American clocks in at 3,400), negating the worry that they’re not getting enough electrolytes. . However, certain diets such as raw vegan and the MIND diet contain far less salt, perhaps justifying an electrolyte supplement.

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Kids are vulnerable to dehydration. They often don’t consume enough fluids, and about 20% drink no water. During hot exercise, a sports drink with electrolytes could help. Research has found that kids given a low-sugar drink with electrolytes consume more liquid compared to kids given water. “They prefer the taste,” Kavouras says.

A supplement could also help people exercising in warm conditions for the first time in a while, Horswill says. “As we get heat-adapted and fit, the body does a better job of reabsorbing sodium rather than losing it in sweat.” 

When in doubt, listen to your body. You may get cramps or feel lightheaded when you’re becoming dehydrated. Another measure is what’s happening in the bathroom. Light yellow urine suggests optimal hydration with balanced fluid intake and electrolytes.

Optimize your electrolytes

When exercising for hours at a time, options abound for boosting electrolytes, such as drinks, powders, and salty snacks like rice crackers. 

The best type comes down to personal preference. “They all get into your system with the same end results, once they’re in your intestine and dissolved,” Barrett explains. An advantage of the drinks is that they deliver both electrolytes and fluids. “The pills and gels are more portable, but you’ve still got to get the fluid into the body,” Barrett says.

Supplements can vary widely in their ingredients, Hess says. Many sports drinks have significant sugar content for refueling energy, while providing fewer electrolytes than what’s lost through sweating, Horswill says. He suggests aiming for a supplement with more electrolytes: around 1,150 mg of sodium per liter.

And go easy on the sugar. Electrolyte supplements with lower sugar levels “help transport fluids into the blood” for better absorption, Hess says. Up to 14 g of sugar per 8 oz. is optimal for quick fluid absorption during and right after exercise, according to Horswill. Even less, about 7 g, could be ideal if the supplement includes only the glucose form of sugar.

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Amino acids, the building blocks of protein, also seem to support hydration when combined with electrolytes. More research may reveal whether sugar or amino acids make the better hydration partner for electrolytes, Millard-Stafford says. For now, “a complete fluid replacement beverage would ideally contain electrolytes, sugar, and maybe amino acids,” Hess says. Pedialyte, for example, provides a good ratio of sugar to electrolytes, experts say.

Some sports drinks have caffeine, which could deplete electrolytes since caffeine is a diuretic, increasing urination in theory. But caffeine has this effect only at high levels: more than 400 mg, Millard-Stafford says. Moderate intake of tea and coffee, below 400 mg of caffeine, are as effective for staying hydrated as water, she adds. 

Combining different beverages throughout the day works well for hydration, especially if they naturally contain electrolytes. Coconut water is an option with electrolytes and low sugar that may support hydration, according to some studies. However, because coconut water is higher in potassium than sodium, it could be less hydrating than typical sports drinks when exercising, Horswill says. 

Millard-Stafford points to low-fat milk, which offers electrolytes, carbs, and amino acids. However, “milk could cause gastrointestinal distress during exercise,” Barrett notes. It does a body good for replenishing electrolytes after exercise. 

The perfect electrolyte potion probably hasn’t been alchemized just yet. “I wouldn’t be surprised if we come up with a new recipe for optimal hydration in a few years,” Kavouras says.

Other than water, tea is the most consumed beverage worldwide. And for good reason: tea is great for you, particularly the green variety.

Several benefits of green tea are supported by solid research. Others, much less so. For example, influencers sometimes gush about green tea being “nature’s Ozempic,” suggesting it’s as effective as obesity medication. If this claim sounds exaggerated, that’s because it is, researchers say.

Below, they explain what the science shows about green tea’s role in countering obesity and diabetes, boosting heart and brain health, and fighting cancer.

Green tea, a nutrition unicorn

Tea leaves are unique because they have more catechins than any other drink or food. These compounds protect cells from damage as we get older.

Green tea may be especially healthy compared to other teas, partly because it undergoes little processing on the way to our cups. Black and oolong teas are fermented, a process that reduces their catechins, although fermentation does yield other kinds of healthy compounds.

Green tea contains a few types of catechins, but one called EGCG is the most powerful for safeguarding the cells and fighting inflammation. “That’s what makes green tea so special,” says Laura Acosta, an instructional associate professor of nutrition at the University of Florida who researches green tea.

How to drink it

When green tea is freshly brewed, it packs more EGCG than ready-to-mix or ground green tea powders, which range widely in their EGCG content, from 2 to 200 mg per serving, Acosta says. If you do go the powder route, look for packages that state their EGCG content, she adds, and try to consume them quickly after buying. Sitting on pantry shelves for six months, powders lose 30-50% of their catechins, Acosta says, meaning fewer health benefits.

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Aim for 2 to 4 cups of green tea per day, says Jeffrey Blumberg, a research professor of nutrition science at Tufts University, depending on your sensitivity to caffeine. “Data suggest there are diminishing returns for health after five cups,” says Marilyn Cornelis, associate professor of preventive medicine at Northwestern University. “More isn’t necessarily adverse,” but the benefits start to plateau.

You’ll want to maintain this intake for a while—years, not days. “Over time, it will have a cumulative effect,” Acosta says.

Managing obesity 

So, are TikTokers right that you can swap obesity medications like Ozempic for a tall cup of tea? 

Don’t count on it. The research isn’t as clear as social media suggests. For example, an influencer dietitian TikTok post in March analyzed one clinical trial on whether green tea acts like obesity medications by triggering the hormone GLP-1, which promotes feelings of fullness and lower blood sugar. According to her, the outcome of the trial was that green tea did elevate GLP-1—but the actual result “isn’t what she implied,” Blumberg says. In truth, the researchers found no significant difference between the group that got the green tea, and the group that didn’t.

A 2017 research review found no evidence that green tea affects blood glucose levels. However, Cornelis thinks it could “inhibit the absorption of carbohydrates, which may reduce glucose levels.” Other studies found that green tea’s catechins contributed to feelings of fullness and drove weight loss. “In theory, it could help with managing obesity or diabetes, but we need a lot more data to support it,” says Dr. Sara Ghoneim, a gastroenterologist at Massachusetts General Hospital and spokesperson for the American Gastroenterological Association.

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Clinical research on green tea typically involves very high doses of EGCG, using pills instead of the drink. These “green tea extract” pills are available online, packing as many as 800 mg of EGCG. The drink won’t provide that much unless you dust off your beer hat from college and slurp it all day. 

Very high doses may damage the liver if taken regularly over many years, but research suggests that only about 5% of people are particularly vulnerable to these effects. “Basic research in animals suggests that high doses can harm the liver,” but perhaps only while fasting from food, when the liver is more vulnerable, Blumberg says.

However, the extract may leave out some of the beneficial properties of tea. “I encourage the whole beverage,” Cornelis says. Excess green tea consumption may also cause nausea or acid reflux, Ghoneim notes, especially for those who are sensitive to tea. “It’s really individual dependent,” she says. “Start with a couple of cups and see how you do.”

The effects of drinking a few cups per day would be very gradual, like a single pound lost over 12 weeks. “Eating tea plants is not like a drug. It won’t have an overwhelming effect,” says Carol Johnston, professor of nutrition at Arizona State University. But that’s no reason to put down your cup, she adds. “A slow, moderate weight loss is the healthiest kind of weight loss. Don’t expect to lose 10 pounds in two weeks. This is a lifelong process.” 

Preventing heart disease 

Regularly drinking green tea supports heart health, partly by decreasing blood pressure, according to a recent meta-analysis. Other research, co-authored by Acosta, showed a similar effect in postmenopausal women. 

It could lower cholesterol as well, Cornelis found. “It reduced bad cholesterol and increased good cholesterol,” she says. “That may underlie the beneficial impact on cardiovascular disease.”

Animal studies point to similar benefits, though Johnston notes that most research in humans suggests that only 5% of green tea’s catechins actually get into the blood system. “It’s poorly absorbed,” she says. But there’s a potential solution: mix green tea with sources of vitamin C, like lemon juice or blended strawberries, which act synergistically with the tea. “Vitamin C can enhance some of the absorption,” Johnston says. 

Protecting brain health

Drinking green tea is associated with a lower risk of Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease. Brain health is one of the “best established health benefits” of green tea, Acosta says.

The caffeine in tea may be especially helpful in keeping the mind sharp. Plenty of research shows that caffeine boosts cognition in the short term, which may translate into long-term protection for frequent quaffers, Cornelis says. Caffeine blocks certain receptors in the brain that affect dopamine, which is involved in Parkinson’s, she adds.

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Now, a sensitive topic: green tea vs. coffee. Both drinks have their passionate defenders, but it’s tough to pick a clear winner. Coffee has twice as much caffeine as tea, but green tea has more L-theanine, a building block of protein that has a calming effect and improves focus and attention, Blumberg says. At least one study has found that green tea, but not coffee, was associated with better cognition as people age.

Detoxing  

Another theory popping up on the internet is that green tea “detoxifies” the body. This idea isn’t accurate, Acosta says, because EGCG can actually become a toxin in its own right. After EGCG spurs healthy adaptations, the body works to transform and eliminate this compound to avoid being harmed by it. “Green tea is a powerful antioxidant,” Acosta says, “but detoxification is completely different.”

Fighting cancer

People on social media have made bold statements about green tea’s ability to combat cancer. What does the research actually show?

In 2021, a large review found little evidence for green tea’s role in preventing cancer. However, lab research suggests that EGCG blocks pathways involved in tumor formation, says Dr. James Segars, a cancer researcher and head of the reproductive endocrinology unit at Johns Hopkins.

Other research shows an association between green tea and a lower risk of certain cancers such as breast, ovarian, prostate, and neck. “It might be protective,” Acosta says, as part of a healthy overall lifestyle. Segars studies cells to see how green tea could reduce the size of fibroids, abnormal masses of tissue that may develop into uterine cancer. He tells patients with a family history of fibroids to take two tablets of 400 mg of green tea extract, daily.

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In theory, green tea may even help with treating cancer, partly because high doses seem to promote the death of cancerous cells. More research is needed on these effects, Segars says.  Dr. Mary E. Money, an internal medicine physician, was diagnosed with advanced ovarian cancer in 2012. Several years later, she was impressed by studies on green tea and cancer, and began sipping 6 to 8 mugs of the beverage throughout the day, instead of taking extract pills—without changing the rest of her regimen. Her cancer biomarkers improved significantly, she says. Money continues to receive chemotherapy when needed; green tea may act synergistically with chemotherapy in some cases, research suggests. 

However, the evidence is mixed, with other studies showing that antioxidants, including those found in tea, might interfere with certain cancer treatments, such as chemotherapy and radiation therapy. 

Money notes that her experience is just that: one anecdote. She could be a super responder, while others’ responses depend on numerous factors, including their specific diagnosis, treatment strategy, and overall nutrition. “There are so many variables,” she says. What’s clear is that—big picture—green tea is a healthy choice.

Online health influencers have plenty to say lately about oils. We should cook with certain oils, banish others from our pantries, swish them around our mouths for flawless gumlines, and lather our bodies and hair with them for everlasting beauty. About the only purposes not suggested for oils are finding lost socks and doing our taxes.

The focus on oils isn’t exactly new; they’ve been praised and debated for eons. The difference today is that scientific research can help separate fact from fiction. But studies are often misunderstood or rejected in favor of personal anecdotes that may be unreliable.

Here are the biggest oil myths going around the internet, according to scientists.

Myth #1: It’s bad to cook with olive oil 

The unrefined version of olive oil—extra virgin, or EVOO—provides significant health benefits, especially in preventing heart disease. However, some online gurus say cooking with EVOO is problematic because of its low smoke point, meaning that, when heated, it may start smoking sooner than other oils. The smoke is viewed as a signal of chemicals developing in food that may eventually cause cancer and heart disease. 

But scientific research doesn’t support this “where there’s smoke, there’s fire” theory. In fact, cooking with EVOO can make both the oil and the food it’s covering healthier, compared to the same food eaten raw, according to recent research. 

Smoke “doesn’t correlate very well with the actual breakdown of the oil,” says Selina Wang, associate professor of food science and technology at University of California, Davis. EVOO is packed with phenols, compounds that support health partly by reducing inflammation. Phenols also protect the oil from deteriorating—regardless of whether it’s smoking. Unlike other oils, “EVOO has the ability to protect itself,” Wang says.

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Oils produce the most smoke during high-temperature cooking processes like frying, which aren’t healthy to begin with. “Smoke point is irrelevant because we shouldn’t cook at those temperatures,” says Mary Flynn, associate professor of medicine at Brown University who studies olive oil.

Wang advises cooking food like vegetables in EVOO at lower temperatures, below 400°F, for just long enough to heat up the veggies—and for their health-giving properties to seep into the oil’s healthy fat. (On a stovetop, this advice may translate to medium heat, though stoves vary in their cooking strengths.) Once transferred to the oil, the beneficial components, such as vitamins and substances called antioxidants that protect the cells from unstable molecules, are absorbed better by our bodies. Antioxidants called carotenoids, for example, help protect against cancer. 

The synergy goes the other way, too: the healthy olive oil components “get sucked into the vegetables,” Flynn says. “In the U.S., we don’t consume our vegetables with fat.” That’s a mistake, because when it comes to getting these micronutrients, “if you’re not cooking vegetables with fat, they’re not getting into your body.”  

Reducing cooking times with EVOO will also ensure a high level of phenols. If cooked longer, their levels decline. Diets rich in phenols are linked to lower risk of heart disease, cancer, and neurodegenerative diseases.

Myth #2: More expensive oil is healthier

The prices of cooking oils are sometimes inflated to suggest they’re superior to their shelf neighbors. In reality, the cost of EVOO reveals little about its quality. Often, bottles between $45 and $90 are “no better” than more reasonably-priced brands. 

Instead of cost, judge EVOO by whether the bottle was produced in California. Large producers in California must pass the state’s tests requiring purity and authenticity. Olive oil is often fraudulent and mixed with other cheaper oils. 

Freshness matters, too. Look for bottles with “harvest dates” showing they’re relatively new to shelves. After opening a bottle, try to use it within four to six weeks. Secure the cap tightly between uses. “Oxygen will destroy the health components,” explains Flynn, who is also an independent science advisor to the Olive Wellness Institute.

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Most important may be an old-fashioned taste test. “One of the best tools we can give consumers is to know the flavor of good olive oil,” Wang says. A teaspoon of EVOO should taste slightly bitter at first, she says, followed by a pungent, spicy tingle at the back of your throat—a sign of its phenols—perhaps causing a couple of coughs.

Myth #3: Non-olive oils are unhealthy 

Seed oils such as canola are the scourge of several online influencers, who cite studies on the harms of consuming these oils. But such studies are often misinterpreted. Scientists think seed and vegetable oils can be healthy, with some important caveats.

Unlike EVOO, most oils are refined, meaning they’re heat-treated. This process strips some of their healthful properties—reducing their phenols, for example. However, refined oils like canola are still high in monounsaturated fats—though not as high as EVOO—that buoy heart health. 

“I don’t want to stigmatize other oils,” Wang says, because they’re generally more affordable than EVOO. She has friends who understand EVOO’s benefits but buy less expensive seed and vegetable oils to save money.

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These oils are healthy enough for home cooking, but the problem is what happens in restaurant kitchens, Wang says. Trying to keep their costs low, many restaurants cook with cheap oils like canola and reuse the same oil puddle. Over several hours, the fats in these recycled oils become oxidized, producing harmful compounds that can lead to serious health issues for those who dine out often. The same concern applies to many cooked items in the prepared food sections of supermarkets.

Like technology, Wang says, it’s not seed or vegetable oils themselves that are bad, but how they’re made and used.

In theory, avocado oil is another healthy option, but the vast majority of brands are rancid or mixed with less healthy oils, Wang has found. 

Coconut oil, on the other hand, is inherently unhealthy, says Qi Sun, an associate professor of nutrition at Harvard, despite influencers touting the benefits of consuming it, such as curing back pain and boosting energy and cognition. Scant research supports these claims, and coconut oil is high in unhealthy saturated fats; one tablespoon-sized serving has about 90% of the daily allowance recommended by the American Heart Association. Because it raises fats in the blood linked to heart disease—LDL cholesterol and triglycerides—“you can conclude it wouldn’t provide any cardiovascular benefits,” Sun says. “It’s not too different from butter or lard.”

By comparison, the same amount of olive oil has 15% of daily recommended saturated fat. Even this lower saturated fat content is potentially harmful, so limit EVOO to 2-4 tablespoons per day, Wang says. 

Myth #4: Oil pulling beats brushing and flossing

Another coconut oil myth is that swishing it around the mouth is better for oral health than standard dental practices. Advocates of “oil pulling” claim that the lauric acid in coconut oil helps fight harmful bacteria and plaque that would otherwise build up in the mouth. But credible research hasn’t suggested benefits, whereas brushing and flossing are backed by far more evidence.

“Has oil pulling ever reversed periodontitis or gingivitis? The answer is no,” says Mark Wolff, professor of restorative dentistry at the University of Pennsylvania. 

Not that oil pulling will necessarily hurt you. “There’s no real reason it would cause harm,” Wolff says, unless it’s substituted for the gold-standard approaches to oral health. “If you want to oil pull, it’s okay, but still brush and floss,” and use doctor-prescribed antibiotics, not oils, to treat oral infections, says Matthew Messina, assistant professor of dentistry at Ohio State University.

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The swishing action of oil pulling may remove debris from between teeth, which could help with preventing dental problems. But flossing, oral irrigation devices like water flossers, and common mouthwashes with specific antimicrobial ingredients are research-supported options for dislodging these food particles. Sesame and sunflower oils are sometimes recommended for oil pulling, based on Ayurvedic medicine practices. However, like coconut oil, they’re lacking in evidence.

Myth #5: Coconut oil transforms hair

Several oils, including coconut oil, contain fatty acid ingredients that hydrate the hair, softening and smoothing it. But claims about the wonders of suffusing hair with coconut oil are exaggerated. These oils may cause more harm than benefit, depending on the person.

Coconut oil could help some who regularly color their hair, heat it, or use potentially harmful products, says Dr. Joshua Zeichner, associate professor of dermatology at Mt. Sinai Hospital in New York City. “You want to make sure you’re hydrating the hair shaft, strengthening and protecting it, especially when caring for chemically treated hair,” he says. Coconut oil could serve this purpose by forming a protective barrier. Zeichner compares it to spackling your walls. “It’s kind of filling in the cracks.” 

But use it in moderation, says Dr. Michele Green, a New York City dermatologist—not every night. 

For dandruff relief, coconut oil is a “double-edged sword,” Zeichner says. “If it creates a greasy environment, it encourages yeast to grow,” worsening dandruff in some cases, he explains.

Don’t reach for EVOO as an alternative, Green says. “There’s no evidence that olive oil improves hair health.” Rosemary oil is a hot trend currently for hair growth, she adds; people massage it into the scalp twice daily, in the morning and evening, leaving it in their hair overnight. “There’s a small research literature showing it could work,” although it can irritate the scalp if it’s not mixed with another oil, like argan or coconut, Green adds.

Myth #6: Oils cure acne

Applying oil to the skin, like the hair, may benefit some people while causing trouble for others.

The lauric acid in coconut oil has antimicrobial properties, “so it’s thought to decrease levels of acne-causing bacteria and even yeast on the skin,” Zeichner says. However, coconut oil is comedogenic, meaning it can clog the pores and increase acne. Also comedogenic are olive, marula, flaxseed, and carrot seed oils. “I would stick with refined, non-comedogenic moisturizers proven not to block the pores,” Zeichner says. “The perception is that natural is better, but that’s not always the case.”

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Green sees value in natural oils for overall skin health for some patients, but they should be used in moderation and combined with moisturizers. “The additional moisture is retained by the barrier the oils offer,” she says.

EVOO, in particular, may enhance the skin’s natural moisture barrier, due to its healthy fat, antioxidants, and vitamins A, D, K, and E, according to Green. Jojoba, argan, and almond oils could be beneficial, too. Almond oil is a common allergen, though. Test it on one spot to check for irritation, Green suggests.

“Some data from lab studies support the use of individual natural oils on the hair and skin,” Zeichner says. “But we’re lacking studies on the real-world use of products.”