There’s something invisible that can put us in an early grave. And I’m not talking about sentient AI, but something much more ubiquitous and real. While AI doomers predict the existential risk that artificial intelligence poses to humanity, air pollution—specifically, ultrafine particulate matter, PM 2.5—has been an efficient killer for decades. Many people don’t realize there are volumes of scientific evidence that link cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and brain damage to the growing list of bleak health consequences of bad air.
According to the World Health Organization, air pollution caused 4.2 million premature deaths worldwide in 2019. As Trump’s EPA continues to roll back standards and deregulate industries that cause air pollution, the burden of maintaining a safe breathing environment is increasingly falling on individuals. Luckily, there are some steps you can take.
Turning Back the Clock
PM 2.5, produced by wildfires, automobile exhaust, power plants, and industries like mining, enters the body through the nose and mouth through the simple act of breathing. Once inside the body, PM 2.5 can enter the bloodstream and the brain. Air pollution’s impact on public health and life expectancy isn’t novel. In 1970, 22 years after the deadly Donora Smog Event that killed 20 people and sickened over 6,000 in Western Pennsylvania, the Clean Air Act became federal law.
Earlier this year, the Trump administration repealed the Biden administration’s new standards for air pollutants from taconite iron ore processing, exempting private sectors from complying, saying, “Preserving and enhancing domestic taconite processing capabilities … ensuring [the] resilience of American industrial supply chains.”
Taconite iron ore processing creates a major amount of PM 2.5. Trump’s White House also repealed recent emissions standards for coal- and oil-fired electric utility steam, along with several other industries. As America’s commitment to limiting air pollution declines, there are appliances and actions you can take to keep the air you breathe healthier, both indoors and outside.
It Can Cause Heart Disease
Courtesy of Coway
When people think of high blood pressure, air pollution might not be what they envision. More often, stress, smoking, poor diet, or genetics might come to mind, but air pollution, PM 2.5, can cause and/or contribute to hypertension. NYU cardiologist Jonathan Newman, an expert on the link between the environment and cardiovascular disease, says that “in broad strokes, air pollution can affect cardiovascular risk factors, blood sugar/diabetes, blood pressure/hypertension.”
Invisible PM 2.5 reaches the deepest part of the lungs, entering the lung’s tiny air sacs, where it passes through the barrier to enter the bloodstream. There, it can build up into plaque on the arterial walls, known as atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. According to Newman, “Generally this occurs through direct effects of inflammation, neurohormonal effects, direct particle effects.” The interaction of PM 2.5 causes an imbalance with free radicals and antioxidants that puts stress on the body, causing inflammation and oxidative stress that leads to cell damage.
In other words, PM 2.5 can wreak havoc on the molecular level. The World Health Organization recommends that average annual concentrations not exceed 10 micrograms per cubic meter, with daily levels under 20 micrograms per cubic meter. Those guidelines are difficult to live by. A study found that “over 90 percent of the world population lives at PM 2.5 levels above World Health Organization standards.” The cheapest and easiest protection is to use a well-made N95 face mask. I carry an N95 mask with me at all times, as I cannot predict if a good-air day will turn into a bad-air night. The practice of carrying a just-in-case mask is one way to have agency over the air you breathe.
Photograph: Lisa Wood Shapiro
3M
Particulate Respirator N95
It Can Progress Diabetes
Newman was one of the coauthors of last year’s study that found that “air pollution exposure has been implicated in the onset and progression of diabetes. Increased exposure to fine particulate matter air pollution (PM 2.5) is associated with increases in blood glucose and all forms of diabetes.” The findings are not new; in studies going as far back as 1967, researchers have found a link between high levels of PM 2.5 in ambient air (outdoor air) and an increase in diabetes deaths. And while there are other contributors to diabetes such as obesity and genetics, there is a link between the inflammation caused by PM 2.5 and diabetes.
It Can Impair Brain Development
While respiratory disease has long been studied as a negative outcome of air pollution, recent studies show that it also impacts the nervous system and brain development, linking PM 2.5 with stroke, changes in cognitive function, dementia, and psychiatric disorders. In particular, that fine and ultrafine particulate matter has an outsized impact, as it can be absorbed into the bloodstream to reach the central nervous system.
And how does this happen? One possible and terrifying way is through the olfactory nerve, the shortest nerve in your body, which enables us to smell. It goes from your brain to the upper inside part of your nose. To understand how something tiny like PM 2.5 can cause inflammation, a 2022 study reiterated, “PM 2.5 can pass through the lung-gas-blood barrier and the ‘gut-microbial-brain’ axis to cause systemic oxidative stress and inflammation, or directly enter brain tissue via the olfactory nerve.” That PM 2.5 accumulates and results in oxidative stress (the free radicals and antioxidants have an imbalance), where it can “cause systemic inflammation and brain tissue damage.”
Carepod Mini for $150: When turned on, the Carepod Mini looks like a Brita Filter that’s also an electric tea kettle. And you’ll think this too because of the Carepod’s unique oscillator that moves the water around inside the clear plastic tank. And unlike the larger stainless steel parts of the larger Carepod models, the Carepod Mini is not dishwasher safe. However, like all Carepod models, the Mini doesn’t have a filter because Carepod recommends using filtered water, putting the water-purifying duties on the user. I would prefer a model with a filter option. Still, the Mini is easy to clean with mild soap and water, unlike some humidifiers that require special descaling solutions. I like what Carepod is trying to do in the humidifier market space, but I almost tipped the whole thing over when I instinctively picked it up by the handle that only lifts up the top part. Still, I found the percolating water effect to be soothing and it does a good job of providing a steady flow of mist. I elevated my Carepod Mini because of its slightly sideways mist flow. I put it on a ceramic plant stand because Carepod warns against placing the Mini directly on wood or furniture because of possible water damage. And while I still do not understand the benefits of Carepod’s oscillator, it looks cool.
Not Recommended
Photograph: Lisa Wood Shapiro
Pure Enrichment Hume XL Humidifier for $80: There are certain design issues that can make a humidifier less user-friendly, and Pure Enrichment’s Hume XL has them all. To begin with, the Hume XL has the old-style tank that needs to be removed and flipped over to fill from the bottom, with a cap that needs to be unscrewed. And while The Hume has a surprisingly large-capacity 5-gallon tank, the filling process is cumbersome, and I always spilled water while doing it. And while the Hume XL has an automatic shutoff when the tank is empty, the opaque black plastic tank is nearly impossible to see through, making it difficult to gauge if I need to fill the tank. There’s also no indicator light to let me know the tank is running low. And while the Hume XL has a solid five-year warranty, night light, and two settings for low or high mist, it’s neither app compatible nor does it have a built-in humidistat. Other lower-cost models have these features. Lastly, the decalcification cartridge filter is sold separately.
FAQs
I’ve been writing about air quality for WIRED since 2019. All the humidifiers in this review were tested in my 100-plus-year-old apartment with the heat on. I was looking for user-friendly humidifiers that could fill a medium-size room with the ideal moisture. I didn’t want to lug jugs of distilled water up my stairs; I also wanted one that was easy to maintain. I was looking for a more committed and sustainable relationship with my humidifier. Maybe you want that too.
At What Percent Humidity Should I Use a Humidifier?
According to the EPA, ideal humidity in a home should be between 30 and 50 percent. Having an indoor humidity at over 60 percent produces a risk of mold growth. A recent study noted that relative humidity serves as a viable predictor of mold growth, and while temperature plays a significant role, keeping humidity levels in the safe range provides benefits without contributing to the unwanted issue of mold. Another study noted that decreased humidity contributed to increased static electricity, skin dryness, and eye irritations along with increased influenza virus survival. For all of those reasons, a humidifier might be what your heat-on/winter season requires.
How Often Should I Clean My Humidifier?
WIRED has seen instructions ranging from “after every use” for dishwasher-safe tanks to “once a week,” to “once a month” in various user manuals. A recent study found that while study participants often did not know how to clear their humidifiers, many used a solution of vinegar and water. If you save anything from the box your humidifier came in, save the manual. I used a solution of water and citric acid to clean my Dyson humidifier. It’s worth noting that a South Korean study found that certain humidifier chemical disinfectants for household humidifiers caused lung injury. Follow your user manual and do not add chemical disinfectants—this is one reason that dishwasher-safe water tanks are an appealing option.
Nope! It may seem counterintuitive, but large heaters don’t necessarily heat any better than small ones.
Whatever their physical size, most space heaters in the US and Canada deliver about the same amount of heat. Space heaters top out at 1,500 watts, which is the highest safe operating load for a 15-amp household circuit. And aside from some low-power personal heaters here and there, most space heaters you’ll find on the market are 1,500-watt heaters.
So if space heaters are the same power and the same efficiency, why are some 1,500-watt heaters advertised for small rooms and some for large rooms? This likely has as much to do with marketing as science. Pretty much every ceramic, electric-coil, or PTC heater has about the same amount of juice and thus the same ability to heat a room … at least eventually.
What differs among heaters is how and where the heat gets distributed and how fast. All other things being equal, the efficacy of a heater is mostly about whether it puts the heat where you want it to go.
What Are the Different Types of Space Heaters?
Basically all electric space heaters do the same thing: They take electricity off the grid, usually 1,500 watts of it if you’re in the United States, and turn that power into heat.
The vast majority of space heaters, including ceramic heaters and PTC heaters, are electric resistance heaters. This means they run an electrical current through something that creates resistance: maybe an electric coil or maybe a specially designed ceramic. This quickly turns electricity into heat.
Most space heaters use a fan to disperse this heat out into the world, where we all live. These forced-air convection heaters tend to be the fastest at quickly raising the temperature of the surrounding air. The air then heats you. And so while this variety heats quickly, it can take quite a bit of electricity to heat up a whole room.
Oil-filled radiators, in contrast, heat up oil that circulates inside the device, which then emits heat to the surrounding room. These tend to heat up slower but offer even and lasting heat and are very quiet. These radiators operate on the same principle as steam radiators in buildings with a boiler room. And just like steam radiators, they can get really, really hot to the touch.
Radiant heaters, such as infrared heaters, operate much like the sun or a campfire: Rather than heat the air, they heat objects or people directly by radiating energy toward them. Infrared devices heat the air only indirectly, via the objects it heats— much the same way the sun’s heat radiates off baking city streets. The glow is immediately palpable as warmth, but you’ll need to be in the path of the radiation to feel it, and the thermometer might not immediately register the warmth you perceive. Infrared heaters tend to be best at making an individual in front of the heater feel a little warmer without using a lot of energy, making them a more common decision in large and lofty spaces or outside on a patio.
Though they deliver heat differently, both infrared and oil-filled heaters are subject to the same wattage limitations, and have about the same efficiency, as electrical resistance heaters.
The same cannot be said for heat pumps, a newer technology that’s expected to provide the next generation of household heat. Heat pumps don’t use energy to create heat. Instead, they move heat energy from one place to another. Accordingly, they require far less energy than other forms of heater. But household systems cost thousands to install. And while more affordable window and portable heat pumps are ramping up, they’re not yet broadly available.
Yes, but also definitely no.
Space heaters are much safer than they used to be. Modern space heaters are heavily regulated, especially regarding exposed heating elements and automatic shut-off switches to prevent overheating. But all heating devices require caution, and so do all devices that pull a lot of energy over long periods.
The vast majority of residential heating fires start with actual fire—specifically in fireplaces and fuel burners. But space heaters accounted for more than a thousand fires in the US each year from 2017 to 2019, according to the US Fire Administration. Though this accounted for just 3 percent of heating fires overall, these led to more than 40 percent of fatalities, in part because portable heaters tend to be placed precisely where people are and because the resulting fires are far more likely to be unconfined.
Don’t leave a space heater unattended. “Unattended” includes sleeping, y’all! Might we suggest a wonderful down comforter instead? When possible, safety experts also recommend you don’t leave a portable heater running unattended in a room with a baby, nor a person with mobility issues. The risk isn’t just fire but hyperthermia.
Plug your heater directly into the outlet. Don’t use extension cords or power strips with space heaters, lest you build up too much electrical load and risk a fire.
Don’t plug another appliance into the same outlet or circuit as the space heater.
Place a space heater only on the floor, on a level surface. Heat rises. You don’t need to prop up a heater on an unstable chair or table.
Keep your heater at least 3 feet from flammable objects. This includes bedding, drapes, furniture, clothes, papers, books. All of that.
Keep space heaters away from water and dampness, whether in bathrooms or in moist basements prone to dripping or flooding.
Read the manual. Manufacturers have good advice.
How We Tested and What We Tested
When it comes to testing space heaters, there are a few main questions: How safe is it? How loud is it? How quickly and evenly can it heat a room?
During intensive testing of dozens of space heaters, I lived for weeks in a home with the thermostat set to a chilly 65 degrees Fahrenheit.
I tested how well and quickly each device heated a medium-size room (14 by 14 feet), and also how well it heated a small seating area in a larger, open-format space. To test each heater’s thermostat and also measure the evenness of heating, I placed thermometers at three or more locations in each room, including behind the heater.
I tested the loudness of each device with a decibel meter at 3 feet away and verified power usage with a wattmeter. To see whether the heater’s exhaust put out painful levels of heat, I used an infrared thermometer to gauge precise surface temperatures. When in doubt, I put my own fingers on the line.
Finally, I tested safety features and basic durability. I looked at independent safety certifications, of course. But I also rudely knocked over each device to verify how the device’s tip-over protections functioned, if at all, and verified that the device started working again when set back on its feet.
To test overheat protection, I smothered each device with an old sheet to see whether the device shut itself off or whether it adjusted its power output to keep internal temperature low. After the device shut itseld off, I then checked how soon it could turn back on, if it ever did. (Some heaters gave up, in permanent complaint!)
If any device fails the tip-over or overheat tests, we don’t recommend it. If it’s significantly louder than 50 decibels at 3 feet, we don’t recommend it. If the heater breaks during routine operation, we don’t recommend it. Maddening rattles and squeaks are also disqualifying.
We keep on testing our favorites through the cold season and beyond, to see how they hold up over time. And, of course, we continually subject more heaters to our testing regimen to see if other devices can oust our current faves.
More Space Heaters I Recommend
Photograph: Matthew Korfhage
Vornado Sensa Cribside Heater for $150: I loved the idea behind this Vornado Sensa Cribside Heater when I tested it: A space heater with an external temperature sensor, with therefore accurate temperature management (hard to find among space heaters!) But it’s disappeared from Vornado’s website, and has begun to dwindle on retail sites. It’s still available on Amazon, and I still recommend it while it exists.
Photograph: Matthew Korfhage
Vornado AVH10 for $100 and Vornado TAVH10 for $150: Vornado has an unholy variety of models that look quite similar but have different levels of loudness and different feature sets. Some are built in America, some in China. In general, the models I’ve liked best are the ones that advertise “vortex action,” a fancy name for spinning a fan into a spiral grate oriented opposite to the action of the fan. This leads to a mostly quiet and nigh-undetectable column of warm air, directed out to the back of the room, where it scatters. The non-digital MVH is my favorite: the most silent, the most reasonably priced. Because it’s analog, the MVH can also be regulated by a temperature-controlled power outlet in order to get the most accurate version of a thermostat. But the MVH is not exactly a feature-rich device. The digital AVH10 and TAVH10 are also quiet, though not quite as quiet as the MVH. They also cost more. But the AVH10 adds a fan and a digital temperature readout. The TAV10 adds to these a timer and a remote.
De’Longhi Slim-Style Portable Panel Heater for $210: This electric panel heater is an interesting hybrid, with dual heat exhausts on each side but also a broad radiant heat panel. This makes for a middle ground between radiators and resistive fan heaters—heating a room much faster than a classic radiator would but still maintaining warm radiant heat over time. This said, it shares a radiator’s main fault, which is that it’s painfully hot to the touch across a large surface—but still issues the same amount of fan noise as a fan heater. Still: It may be your choice if you need to heat up a space quickly and evenly and maintain that heat over time.
Dreo MC706 for $170: New this year, Dreo’s innovative 2-in-1 fan/heater won top marks in our fan guide for its auto-shift positive temperature coefficient (PTC) technology, which moves the heater’s ceramic element aside to allow full fan airflow. Its 1,700 ft/m wind speed is a rarity among tower fans, let alone tower fan/heater combos. It’s not the strongest space heater, but it is sufficient, with five settings, 120-degree oscillation, and tip-over protection. Note that though there is a remote, there are no smart features, and it does not work with Dreo’s app.
Dreo Bathroom Heater for $60: Like Dreo’s smart wall-mounted model I far prefer, this ceramic heater comes with an ALCI plug for safe use near water. I prefer to keep bathroom heaters away from the floor, but not all bathrooms have mountable wall space. This remains a possible, though not ideal alternative, with a somewhat janky thermostat.
Photograph: Matthew Korfhage
Not Recommended
Pelonis 16-Inch Space Heater for $65 and Pelonis 23-Inch Space Heater for $70: Both of these towers heated up quite quickly. Both were also enormously hot at the surface of their vents, with relatively little shielding from the visible heating elements. The 23-inch was significantly quieter than the 16-inch, however.
Photograph: Matthew Korfhage
Morento 26-cm Heater for $45 and Morento 40-cm Heater for $67: Both of these Morento heaters were pretty quiet. But they also had the highest surface temperatures across their front vent of any space heaters I tested: The smaller, 26-centimeter tower measured 207 degrees Fahrenheit on its face, nearly hot enough to boil water.
Photograph: Matthew Korfhage
Vornado VMHi600 for $200: This large cube was about as quiet as the AVH10, staying below 60 decibels, but its vent got quite hot—about 130 degrees Fahrenheit. Other Vornado models perform far better at a far lower price.
Photograph: Matthew Korfhage
Vornado Velocity Cube 5S for $100: This cube’s outer housing stayed quite cool, and the fan functionality is welcome. But its surface vent got a little hot, and the fan was a bit on the noisy side compared to other Vornados.
Vornado Velocity 5R Whole Room Heater for $125 and Vornado VHEAT for $160: Our top pick MVH from Vornado is one of the quietest space heaters I’ve tested. These were two of the loudest. The 5R topped 70 decibels. The vintage-looking VHEAT is quite lovely, but it’s also a bit of a noisemaker.
Photograph: Matthew Korfhage
Lasko MyHeat Mini for $40: This little thing looked cute, and I thought it would be a nice desktop or under-table personal heater. But even with its low output at 400 watts, the vent got way too hot to want it anywhere near your laptop or papers.
Photograph: Matthew Korfhage
Lasko 22-inch Oscillating Tower With Remote for $80: This one failed our tip-over test when we knocked it over, blasting heat endlessly into the rug until it overheated and sent a burnt-plastic smell into the air. It did restart hours later, meaning this shutoff was a safety feature. But this tower’s a bit too tall and tippable to risk repeating these events often.
Photograph: Matthew Korfhage
Honeywell 2-Position Heater for $45: This compact, simple, analog heater was a nice enough idea, able to rest vertically or on its side. Lord, it’s loud when its fan is in operation, though.
Photograph: Matthew Korfhage
Honeywell Compact Ceramic Tower for $47: This Honeywell performed well in terms of fast heat and safe surface temperature. Its fan wasn’t too loud either. But the one we received had a maddening squeak each time the tower oscillated fully counterclockwise.
The first thing to think about is how you’re going to drain the water from the dehumidifier. In the basement, the best thing you can do is to use the dehumidifier’s continuous water drain tube to either the sump pump or a drain. If those options are not available, you might be emptying the tank multiple times a day. The first time I put a dehumidifier in the basement, the tank was filled in three hours’ time. It’s all about the drainage. Also, knowing how to read a label. If you have a 50-pint humdidifier that means the appliance can remove 50 pints of moisture from the air in a 24-hour period; it’s not the internal tank capacity. Also, look for the maximum area coverage. For example, the Honeywell Smart 50 pint can remove 50 pints of water from 4,000 sq ft—the size of a whole house—in 24 hours.
If you, like me, also need a dehumidifier in your city apartment, then consider buying one that’s easy to move around with wheels and a handle. Some of these machines are heavy. Also, a small dehumidifier in the bathroom is a good idea to keep the dampness at bay, especially if you have mold growing on your grout.
Lastly, do not drink the water collected in your dehumidifier tank. That water is not potable. Pour it down the drain. A dehumidifier is not creating distilled water; that’s a different process and appliance.
EcoFlow Wave 2 for $1,299: Lisa Wood Shapiro tested the newest model for this update. The EcoFlow Wave 1 has cooled down my wife’s office for more than a year just fine—we can’t use a window AC there because it would block the fire escape. Lo and behold, there’s a new version that’s slightly cheaper (8/10, WIRED Recommends). It’s a little lighter than its predecessor at 32 pounds, yet has a higher 5,100 BTU rating (up from 4,000). New here is a heating mode rated at 6,100 BTU, so you can keep using it in the winter to warm up a room. The company says it’s best for rooms up to 107 square feet. You do need to place it near a window to have one of the included ducts connected to the vent to take hot exhaust from the back of the unit out of the room. What makes this unit versatile is how you can power it. You can use a standard AC outlet, but you can buy the version with a battery to keep it working when you don’t have access to power, or you can hook it up to solar panels. —Julian Chokkattu
Dreo Smart Air Conditioner for $460: The Dreo Smart Air Conditioner not only cools a large bedroom effectively and quickly, it also can be controlled by the app in my iPhone. Along with the Dreo’s easy-to-use app, it can be paired with Amazon Alexa or Google Home. It has an easy-to-read LED display and control panel, along with a magnetized place for the remote, and louvers that open and close, adding to its robotlike aesthetic. The setup was easy, and I didn’t drill in a single screw, as I was able to close the window on the expanders. It’s not entirely clear how I was supposed to snap the hose into the window hole, but I shoved it in and it seems to fit in there. It’s not super airtight, which is fine. One of the issues with portable air conditioners is the single hose. It can create a vacuum in an airtight space; think pressure in your ears like an airplane. And it can create enough negative pressure that the room can potentially suck in hot air from the outside. So, leave the window open a crack. However, we now only recommend dual-hose portables, as they don’t create a vacuum and are more efficient. —Lisa Wood Shapiro
Zero Breeze Mark II for $999: With its 2,300 BTU, you won’t be able to get the same cooling power as with the EcoFlow Wave, but the Zero Breeze (7/10, WIRED Review) is much lighter at 17 pounds. This bundle includes a battery that will make the whole thing weigh about 30 pounds, but you’ll get four hours of use without needing to be near a wall outlet. Like the EcoFlow, you get a few vent pipes to direct exhaust away and direct cool air to a specific area, but unlike the EcoFlow, you can’t charge the battery and use the AC at the same time. —Julian Chokkattu
Zero Breeze Mark III for $1,399: As WIRED contributor Chris Null notes (7/10, WIRED Review), the Mark III is both larger than the Mark II and quite a bit heavier, now 22 pounds. Add on the 1,022-Wh battery pack and you’ll pack on another 14 pounds, though that frees you from having to be near a power outlet. New for the Mark III is the fact that batteries can now be stacked and charged in sequence, each daisy-chained to the next (though at $600+ per battery, this can get pricey fast). Each Mark III battery also has extra outputs that can be used for other devices—one USB-C port, one USB-A port, and a 12-volt DC socket. However, the Mark II battery has all of the above plus a second USB-A port. No word on why this was removed. However, it’s a bigger, punchier unit by most standards and a worthwhile buy for outdoors enthusiasts.
BTU stands for British thermal units. In the case of air conditioners, BTU is a way to measure how much heat the compressor can remove from a room. It’s a quick and easy way to figure out whether an AC unit is powerful enough to cool your space. First, you’ll want to find the square footage of your room by multiplying the length and width. Then, use the US Department of Energy’s guidance on the BTU capacity you need. For example, a 150- to 250-square-foot room needs a 6,000 BTU AC unit or higher for adequate cooling.
Check the combined energy-efficiency ratio (CEER) rating. The specs on any air conditioner you buy should list a CEER rating, which is one of the best ways of checking the energy efficiency of a unit. You’ll usually see a number between 9 and 15. The higher the number, the less you’ll pay when the electricity bill comes around. A cheap window AC unit might save you money at first, but you may end up shelling out more in the long run. The US Energy Star program has a website that lets you browse AC units based on their CEER ratings.
Check local laws. Some cities, like New York, require installing brackets to support your window AC. A simple one like this model should do the trick, though we haven’t tried it out. You may also need to head to a hardware store for some plywood to make sure your window sill sits flat, but this depends on the type of windows you have and the AC model you buy. When installing, you should get a friend to help you out. These units can be heavy and difficult to hold, and the last thing you want is to drop one out the window.
Measure your window. Before you buy, read up on the supported window types and sizes for the AC unit you’re looking at, and measure your window to be safe. Make sure to seal any gaps as best you can with the included foam. (You can always buy more if you need it.)
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