Category: Home & Garden

Ask anyone in my family and they will confirm that I love the color pink. Pink scarves, pink phone, pink hoodies are just a few of the things I own in the rosy hue. So naturally when I discovered succulents in the same shade, I bought them up.

Not every garden, of course, can incorporate succulents due to sun/shade factors and USDA zone issues, nor can every landscape design embrace and accommodate a pop of pink. But usually there is room for at least one pinkalicious plant in your life. For instance, you could consider a small succulent-filled container that you bring indoors during the colder months. Or maybe you cold grow a cutie indoors and situate it by a very sunny window. And if the color pink is already in your garden and your climate can accept succulents, you could plant them in your garden beds.

Please keep reading to learn about my favorites for a pop of pink:

Echeveria ‘Afterglow’

This wonderfully colored hybrid with pale powdery pink leaves was hybridized by Don Worth, a photographer and succulent breeder in my home town. The big rosettes with their bright pink edging can almost glow in a garden, especially when backlit. Orange-red flowers emerge in the summer, but for me, it’s more about the fantastic leaf color. This deer resistant and drought tolerant succulent grows to about 1 to 2 feet high by 1 to 2 feet wide, looks best in full sun, and can take temperatures down to the mid 20s. Pair this plant with silvery gray tones or, for maximum impact, contrast it with chartreuse hues.

Echeveria ‘Perle von Nurnberg’

This rosette shaped succulent boasts a picture-perfect pink color that intensifies in full sun and cooler temperatures. Growing 3 to 5 inches high and 6 to 10 inches wide, it tolerates high heat and low water, and is a strong bloomer sending out arching stems topped with charming coral flowers. Hardy in USDA zones 9b-11, it can also thrive indoors if kept near a sunny window. Always pick a pot with drain holes and plant in a gritty, well draining soil mix.

Sedum ‘Dream Dazzler’

Relatively new on the plant scene, this easy and durable Sedum celebrates a tricolor effect of pink, white and smoky purple, with hot pink margins. An excellent and colorful groundcover among other succulents or a filler for containers. You and the butterflies will love the magenta pink blooms that cover the plant in the summer. Deer luckily leave it alone and low amounts of water don’t slow it down.  Full to part sun is best in well draining, gravelly soil. In the fall, you can trim it back after the flowering stops and even divide it up in the spring to make more of this stellar Sedum. Hardy in USDA Zones 4-9.

Oscularia deltoides

AKA ‘Pink Ice plant’, this curious succulent from South Africa is underrated but very charming. Growing low to approximately 1 foot high and 2 to 3 feet wide, it has wiry vivid pink stems that hold blue-green fleshy leaves; come springtime, small lavender-pink flowers burst open when exposed to sunlight, covering the foliage. Plant in full sun or light shade in well-draining soil. Plants that are spoiled and given more sun and water will be denser and have plumper leaves. Hardy to around 18 degrees, deer-resistant, and butterfly attracting.

Anacampseros telephiastrum f. variegatum ‘Sunrise’

Don’t let the long name deter you from growing this standout plant. The variegation boasts a cocktail of hot pink and apple green hues on thick, fleshy leaves. Perfect as a 6-inch-high filler and spiller for pots. Outside, it withstands heat and drought; inside, it does well living on a sunny window sill. In the summer you can expect large pink flowers during sunny hours. Full sun to light shade is best for vibrant color. Protect from frost.

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Friend-of-the-GPOD Cherry Ong is taking us along today to tour a beautiful greenhouse.

Serendipitous visits are fun! In a recent trip to Ontario, we saw a street banner that advertised the Spring Bulb Show at the Gage Park Tropical Greenhouse in Hamilton, Ontario. I didn’t even know about the greenhouse, so after Googling it I decided it was worth checking out.

The Gage Park Tropical Greenhouse is located at 1000 Main Street East, Hamilton. It is a newly constructed 14,000-square-foot (1300-square-meter), fully accessible greenhouse that features a collection of subtropical plants, unique species, and palm trees. It is designed as a community gathering place, providing opportunities as an educational center and a rentable space for special events, including wedding photos. The greenhouse also features waterfalls, ponds with fish, turtles, and waterlilies, and tiered concrete seating. Admission is free.

I can’t get over how fabulous this Fiji fan palm is! (Pritchardia pacifica). According to the information at the greenhouse, it is native to Tonga and can be found in similar climate types in the southwestern Pacific such as Fiji, Samoa, and the Marquesas, but this was likely due to human introduction in these areas.

Towering palms provide scale to how spectacular the height and size of this greenhouse is.

This greenhouse looks so full for a relatively newly built space.

The foliage on this Zuzuland cycad (Encephalartos ferox) is just beautiful.

I believe this vine scrambling up the greenhouse structure is some species of monkey brush (Combretum).

Monkey brush flowers have such a brilliant color!

The bright red flowers of Clerodendron thomsoniae, aka the bleeding heart vine, are set off so beautifully by the crisp white calyxes.

A basket full of ferns hangs from the support that the Clerodendron is scrambling up.

Look at this enormous vent! I imagine they can grow anything under the greenhouse and keep it healthy with a ventilation system this large.

I went gaga over this Cuban wax palm (Copernicia hospita) too!

Cuban wax palm is native to Cuba and looks stunning with this striking blue foliage.

 

Have a garden you’d like to share?

Have photos to share? We’d love to see your garden, a particular collection of plants you love, or a wonderful garden you had the chance to visit!

To submit, send 5-10 photos to [email protected] along with some information about the plants in the pictures and where you took the photos. We’d love to hear where you are located, how long you’ve been gardening, successes you are proud of, failures you learned from, hopes for the future, favorite plants, or funny stories from your garden.

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Others misidentify the wood-burrowing types with ground-tunneling ones, but these pose no threat to hearth and home either.

Some are solitary nesters while others are social. Some may sting, but many more are stingless and docile.

All act as significant pollinators for our crops, flowers, and trees.

And some of our native species now even face the risk of extinction.

So, before acting to rid your premises of bees, take a few moments to learn how to tell the most common species apart.

Most are harmless to humans and their homes, and it’s far more beneficial to your local and global ecosystems to leave them in peace – they have important work to do!

Here’s what we’re looking at:

Native North American Bees

With over 4,000 species, native North American bees can be found anywhere that flowers bloom.

Unlike honeybees, which were imported by European settlers in the 1620s, most native species are socially solitary, nest in underground chambers, and produce no honey. But, there are always exceptions!

A key player in most ecosystems, they have a vital role in pollinating all blossoming plants, from food crops to wildflowers. And they’re particularly adapted for the reproduction of native plants, such as blueberries, cranberries, squash, and tomatoes.

Flying from flower to flower, they collect loose pollen on their body fur, cover their legs with it (creating what are referred to as “pollen pants”), or groom it into pollen baskets on their legs or tummies.

A naturally abundant source of protein, the collected pollen is used as a food source for the larvae that are growing in brood chambers.

The nectar the adults sip provides a high-octane fuel, and mothers will often collect enough to mix in with their stash of pollen to form “loaves” to lay their eggs on.

Most species are short lived, lasting only one season – just long enough to mate, nest, and lay eggs.

Commonly Confused Backyard Species

Bumblebees (Bombus)

Bumblebees belong to the Apidae family in the genus Bombus, and North America is home to approximately 50 species – most folks will be familiar with at least some of them.

Ranging in size from 3/4 to 1 1/2 inches, they’re covered with short, spiky hair, are mostly black in coloring, and typically have stripes of orange, white, or yellow.

Highly social, they form colonies with a single queen and several workers – sterile females and male drones.

Male drones are stingless but queens and female workers can sting, although they’re usually non-aggressive. Females will sting when provoked to defend their nest, and queens usually only sting other queens.

Ground nesters, Bombus species often nest in an existing ground cavity such as an abandoned rodent burrow. Others simply make a nest on top of the ground and loosely cover it with thatch and vegetative debris.

Once a site has been chosen, the queen constructs a few wax pots that she tops up with honey, to sip from while she tends her eggs. She also constructs a larger pot that gets stocked with a mixture of pollen and nectar. She lays her first brood of about six eggs on top of this mix – these will grow to be the sterile female workers.

Once the first batch has grown, she spends the remainder of her time laying more eggs while the workers tend to housekeeping chores and collect pollen.

Workers are usually smaller than the queen. This is why you rarely see the really big buzz-bombs after spring – they’re at home, laying eggs.

Females born after the first brood are not sterile and mate soon after emerging from the nest, adding more workers and drones. The colony grows quickly over the summer, with as many as two hundred workers, although a number closer to one hundred is the norm.

All the female workers, male drones, and the old queen die by summer’s end; the only survivors are the new generation of queens. Before winter, the new queens mate before finding a safe, sheltered spot to sleep away the cold weather.

However, our native bumblebees are under siege. According to the Xerces Society, more than one-quarter of all species face a significant risk level of extinction. Nests should be left undisturbed whenever possible.

Carpenters (Xylocopa)

Carpenters belong to the genus Xylocopa with seven species found in Canada and the US.

They measure approximately 1/2 to 1 inch in length with mostly black wings and bodies, plus stripes of yellow or orange. Some males have a white facial patch. There are also species with iridescent wings, and brightly colored body hair of blue or green.

Because of their similarity in size and coloring to large bumblebees, the two species are often confused.

The easiest way to visually distinguish between them is by looking at their abdomens. Bumblebees have abdomens covered with dense, short hair while carpenter abdomens are bare and may have a metallic sheen to them.

Carpenters also have wider heads compared to bumblebees.

Known for their docile nature, males are stingless, but like to hover near intruders. Females will sting, but only when roughly handled or aggressively provoked.

A solitary species, a single female does all the work of nest construction, plus collecting pollen and nectar for her eggs.

Their preferred nesting site is old, bare wood. The female rasps an entrance hole, then constructs a series of connecting chambers, or galleries, where she will lay a single egg atop a loaf of nectar and pollen.

As each egg is laid, she encloses it with a partition of chewed wood pulp, and then creates another pollen loaf for the next egg. These will take about seven weeks to hatch.

At summer’s end, the new adults will provision a suitable nest with pollen and sleep through winter until spring, when the cycle begins again.

Borer, Ground, and Miners (Agapostemon, Andrena, Colletes, Halictus, Lasioglossum)

In North America, several families of ground nesting bees are found in the order Hymenoptera, including Agapostemon, Andrena, Colletes, Halictus, and Lasioglossum.

Small to medium in size, these species typically measure between 1/4 to 3/4 inch in length and include the common Colletes inaequalis as well as sweat bees from the Halictidae family, miners in the Andrena family, and diggers in the subfamily Apidae.

Like many other species, they have variations in appearance with brown or black wings, black bodies, and stripes of orange, tan, yellow, or white. And some may have hairless or hairy abdomens, metallic brass, green, or blue bodies, or iridescent wings.

Non-aggressive, only the females are able to sting, though they will rarely do so and only when handled roughly.

These species of ground-nesters are socially solitary and like to dig into dry soil – not wood – to create nest sites.

Each female finds a suitable south-facing site (often bare patches in the lawn or garden), then diligently burrows an entrance and a series of brood tunnels.

She mounds the freshly dug soil around her entrance and stockpiles the nursery with pollen and nectar for her offspring. C. inaequalis even lines her nest with a cellophane-like secretion, providing a waterproof barrier that also helps to keep eggs safe from fungal disease.

Natural Predators

Backyard bees have several predators that help to keep populations in check:

Predatory birds include bee-eaters, spotted flycatchers, tits, shrikes, and woodpeckers.

Insects will also hunt them, such as the crab spider, Musomania vatia, plus dragonflies, robber flies, and wasps.

Mammals and rodents such as bears, field mice, foxes, minks, shrews, skunks, and weasels will all consume flying adults and nest contents.

Tall spires of lush flowers and dewdrop-catching leaves make lupine a star in the garden. Peach, pink, and purple shades abound. Look out for unique bicolor varieties like purple and gold (for all those Husky fans out there).

• Full sun to part shade

• Water and fertilize regularly

• 12”-5’ tall and wide, depending upon variety

• Blooms May – mid-summer

We’d love to help you choose something perfect for your individual space, whether in person or on social media using #heyswansons!

This is fine if you will just be making apple sauce or apple butter with them, but what if you want to sell your apples?

We will give you tips on how to prevent these diseases from plaguing your trees, and what to do if they do occur.

What Are Sooty Blotch and Flyspeck?

First, it’s important to understand that these symptoms are due to the activities of two different diseases. Sooty blotch is caused by several different types of fungi, while flyspeck is caused by the fungus Zygophiala jamaicensis.

These two diseases are usually grouped together because they often occur on fruit together, and are controlled the same way.

Flyspeck manifests as clusters of 6-50 black, shiny, slightly raised round dots. Sooty blotch is as it sounds –­ dark blotches that may cover most of your apples.

The worst infections occur when the spring is cool and rainy; it rains in the summer, and the fall temperatures are cool.

Your fruit can become infected any time after the petals fall, but typically this takes place in middle or late summer.

Sooty blotch often starts out by colonizing apple twigs. However, the hyphae – long, branching structures that are the fungi’s main method of growth – can fragment. These fragments can fall all over your apples, resulting in this nasty-looking infection.

Fungicides You Can Use to Control This Ugly Duo

There are a number of commercial fungicides you can use to control these diseases. If you are worried about secondary effects, some of are “reduced risk fungicides.”

Two strobilurin class fungicides show promise for controlling both sooty blotch and flyspeck. They include kresoxim methyl and trifloxystrobin. They are safer for the environment and human health but are still highly effective.

You should start the applications soon after petal fall and continue in the fall when the weather is cooler. Typically, growers apply the fungicides at 10-14 day intervals.

Now You Know How to Purge These Diseases

The symptoms of sooty blotch and flyspeck are highly alarming. Fortunately, these diseases are superficial, and you may even be able to rub the evidence of them off of your harvest.

Although your fruit are fine to eat, they may be difficult to sell. If your trees are prone to these diseases, you may want to consider red-skinned apples, because the blemishes are less noticeable.

I like to think of cilantro as the goddess of the garden. For me, she’s always there, always ready to share – both with me, and my friendly garden pollinators.

So I guess you could say I’m a cilantro worshiper of sorts, and I’m guessing I’m not the only one!

In this article we’ll cover everything you’ll need to know about growing this divine herb.

We’ll even provide harvesting, storage, and preserving tips, as well as tantalizing your taste buds with some delectable cooking ideas.

We’ll touch on the divisiveness of this culinary ingredient as well since, as you probably know, as much as it is loved by some, cilantro is also reviled by many who experience its flavor differently.

Ready to get up close and personal with this distinctive garden herb? Let’s dig in!

What is Cilantro?

A member of the Apiaceae family, Coriandrum sativum is related to many other stars of the herb and spice rack, such as parsley, chervil, dill, anise, caraway, cumin, and asafetida.

It’s also related to carrots, celery, celeriac, parsnips, lovage, angelica, and queen Anne’s lace.

C. sativum is an herbaceous annual plant whose leaves and seeds are enjoyed culinarily. The leaves, known in some parts of the world as cilantro, are used as an herb while the seeds, known as coriander, are used as a spice.

Even cilantro’s roots, stems, and flowers are edible!

Plants have a mounding growth habit, and generally reach 12 to 18 inches tall, with flower stalks bringing them to a total height of two to three feet. These plants also have a spread of 12 to 18 inches.

The lower leaves of this herb – the ones valued for cooking – look similar to those of parsley.

Coriander leaves are lobed, usually with deeply cut margins.

Plants produce umbrella-shaped inflorescences with small, individual flowers that are white to pale pink.

When a coriander flower stalk is growing, upper leaves appear which are wispier than the lower leaves, and these are not as desirable for cooking.

If you’re looking at this plant or considering the descriptions of it and thinking, “that’s not the cilantro I was looking for,” there are a couple of other plants that can be confused with the subject of our article.

Vietnamese coriander (Persicaria odorata), a plant that has long pointed leaves rather than frilly ones, has a similar flavor profile as fresh coriander but it is spicier.

And another plant, Eryngium foetidum, known as “culantro” (and no, that’s not a typo!) tastes very much like cilantro but has long, narrow leaves with serrated edges.

Cultivation and History

Native to Pakistan, the Mediterranean, and the Middle East, C. sativum has a long history as both a food and an herbal medicine.

Perhaps the oldest evidence of its use by humans, coriander seeds dating to 8,000 years ago were found in Nahal Hemar, an archeological cave site in Israel.

They were also found in the tomb of Tutankhamun, a pharaoh of ancient Egypt, as well as in other ancient Egyptian graves.

Winding its way through history, this plant was mentioned by classical Greek authors such as the ancient Greek physician, Hippocrates, and has been used medicinally since at least 1550 BCE.

When it comes to cuisine, in the United States the leaves of this plant are usually called “cilantro,” but in other parts of the world they may also be referred to as “Chinese parsley,” “Mexican parsley,” “fresh coriander,” or “coriander leaves.”

Cherished for their distinct flavor, cilantro leaves are featured in Levantine, Latin American, and Asian cooking.

Coriander leaves have a pungent, bright flavor that contrasts beautifully with earthy flavors like beans – at least, for those of us who love it, it does. (For those who don’t, the leaves may taste like soap.)

The seeds of the plant, commonly called coriander, are used whole or ground in many cuisines, particularly those of India, while the roots are incorporated into some Thai and Vietnamese dishes.

As for its use in herbal medicine, essential oils from the coriander plant exhibit antioxidant, antibacterial, and antifungal properties. This plant even shows potential for assisting in the treatment of cancer.

Research exploring the potential health benefits of various forms of coriander is ongoing, but at the very least, adding fresh and dried herbs and spices to your food is a great way to add flavor to your culinary creations and variety to your diet.

And what better way to do this than growing them in your own garden?

In addition to its use as a food and medicinal plant, coriander makes a great companion plant for other garden crops like marigolds, beans, and kale.

Want to learn more about the scientifically backed benefits of companion planting? Read our article!

One of the reasons cilantro is such a popular companion plant is that it is wonderful for attracting pollinators. In fact, it’s even considered an excellent floral crop to grow for forage for honey bees.

In addition to honey bees, cilantro attracts a wide range of beneficial insects like other types of bees, butterflies, wasps, and hoverflies.

Grown as an annual in USDA Hardiness Zones 2 to 11, this herb is quite adaptable to different growing setups.

Cilantro is easy to grow indoors, and it’s an herb that can be grown in a greenhouse.

You might consider growing coriander in a container, in a raised bed, or cultivating it for its flowers as part of a cut flower garden.

When used in flower arrangements, coriander inflorescences can be used as a filler, taking the place of baby’s breath.

And now, we finally arrive at the burning question – why do some people think cilantro tastes like soap?

It’s all got to do with genetics.

Because of a genetic variation, those of you who hate this herb are smelling and tasting something that the rest of us are not!

Propagation

This herb is a cool-season crop. If you want fresh leaves to enjoy, plant cilantro in spring, late summer, or early fall for the best results.

However, if you want to grow coriander plants for seeds or for flowers to attract pollinators, it’s fine to plant it during the summer as well.

This herb is extremely easy to propagate from seed, but you can also use transplants that are homegrown or purchased from a nursery. Let’s look at how to accomplish each method, starting with direct sowing outdoors:

From Seed Sown Outdoors

When direct sowing coriander outdoors, sow seeds six to eight weeks before your last average frost date. Germination is best when the soil temperature is between 55 and 68°F.

Cilantro is often grown densely when cultivated for its fresh leaves, or with more space between plants when grown for seeds.

For the leaves, you can plant coriander seeds as close as three inches apart, but it is more commonly grown six to eight inches apart.

For seed production, sow seeds 12 inches apart. In square foot gardening, this herb is grown in the center of a one-foot square.

When it comes to depth of sowing, sow coriander seeds one-quarter to one-half of an inch deep, and water in after sowing.

Keep the growing medium moist but not soggy while seeds germinate – a process which can take up to 21 days.

Keep young coriander plants well-watered, irrigating if needed, until they are about four inches tall. At that point you can reduce watering to about one inch a week.

When planted densely, young coriander seedlings can be thinned if needed, and enjoyed as part of an early spring harvest.

For a constant supply of fresh herbs, these seeds can be sown in succession every two to three weeks.

From Transplants

Once you have a cilantro plant growing in a nursery pot, you will want to transfer it to your garden, a raised bed, or a larger container.

Before transplanting, be aware that coriander seedlings grown indoors will be more tender than seeds sown directly in the soil, and will need to be hardened off.

You can learn more about growing annual plants indoors and hardening them off in our article.

Since cilantro has a delicate taproot, handle transplants gently.

To transplant coriander starts grown in biodegradable pots, break the rim of the pot off before planting it.

For those grown in plastic pots, gently squeeze the sides of the pot, then tilt the plant upside down to release it from its pot – don’t pull on the plant’s stem to remove it.

If the coriander specimen was rootbound in its plastic pot, gently rub your hand along the sides of the roots to loosen them up.

Place the transplant into a hole roughly as deep and twice as wide as the root ball, taking care not to bury the plant’s crown, and backfill with soil.

Water the plant in after transplanting.

How to Grow

Clearly, cilantro can grow without too much help since it will readily self-seed year after year if seed heads are not removed from plants.

Nonetheless, here are some tips for growing cilantro in the garden that will be helpful for when you’re first getting started:

In cool weather, it’s best to grow cilantro in full sun. But if you have a location that gets morning sun and light afternoon shade, that’s also suitable.

To prevent bolting in the heat of midsummer, this herb can be grown in part shade.

While loam is the garden soil of choice for coriander, it can be grown in a wide range of soils, as long as there is good drainage, plenty of organic matter, and a pH of 6.0 to 7.0.

As for water, young seedlings need to stay well-hydrated, but once plants are established, they are fairly drought tolerant.

Cilantro plants need about an inch of water a week, more during very hot spells.

This herb grows best at temperatures between 50 and 85°F, but coriander plants can withstand lows down to 10°F.

On the other hand, when temperatures exceed 85°F, coriander will bolt more quickly, so sow some seeds where they will be exposed to light shade during the heat of the day for a continual supply of fresh leaves.

Growing Tips

• Grow coriander in full sun to part shade.
• Make sure the soil drains well.
• Provide one inch of water per week when rain is lacking, more during droughts.

Maintenance

Cilantro is an easy-going member of the garden community and it doesn’t require much upkeep. Here’s what you’ll want to know:

Young seedlings are susceptible to being crowded out by neighboring weeds, so make sure to keep the area weed free until plants get established.

If you need tips on how to spend less time weeding, read our article!

To help prevent weeds from growing around your herb crop, put a layer of mulch around seedlings, leaving an unmulched ring about one inch wide around the stem of the plant.

This will help ensure adequate airflow around the coriander plant and prevent problems with diseases.

If you add compost when you’re preparing your garden beds, you won’t need to do any additional fertilizing during the growing season.

Add two to four inches of compost into the soil before planting coriander. If sowing a succession of seeds, add more compost at the time of sowing.

Take care not to over-fertilize, however, because too much nitrogen can make the plant less flavorful.

To slow cilantro plants from bolting, provide mulch and water regularly to help keep soil temperatures low, and sow when the weather is cool.

Finally, there is one more maintenance task you’ll want to be aware of when you grow cilantro – that’s dealing with or preventing volunteers.

If you plant this herb in your garden and let the flowers go to seed, you’ll have a new crop of cilantro before you know it – either the following spring, or maybe even in autumn, right after your current crop.

Some of us might welcome such easily obtained garden plants – but to prevent these coriander babies from springing up unwanted, make sure to prune off seed heads while they are still immature and green.

If you miss a chance to prune the unripe seeds of coriander plants and you end up with a crop of unwanted volunteers, feel free to harvest them and use them as a garnish, or let them grow into new plants.

Cultivars to Select

Ready to get some coriander plants growing?

Though you’ll often find nursery-grown transplants and seed packets marked with a generic label, there are actually many different cultivars available today. These include:

But here’s a quick rundown of potential issues to be aware of, just in case:

Insects

Apart from beneficial insect visitors that adore the nectar of these plants, you won’t often have to deal with insect pests on your coriander crop.

However, weakened cilantro plants in particular are more susceptible to insect pest attacks. Here are a few culprits you’ll want to keep an eye out for:

Aphids

If you notice the foliage of your coriander plants turning yellow or becoming distorted or stunted, check the bottom sides of the leaves – aphids may be the cause.

Willow carrot aphids (Cavariella aegopodii) in particular can be a problem on cilantro.

These tiny insects suck nutrients from plant tissues, weakening them. They also leave trails of waste matter in their wake called “honeydew,” which can encourage the growth of fungal pathogens like sooty mold.

If aphids are making a meal of your herbs, they can often be removed with a strong jet of water from the garden hose.

Planting your coriander crops in a polyculture style with a mix of plants from different families in each growing area will help to reduce the presence of pests like aphids, as this type of gardening will increase the presence of helpful beneficial insects such as parasitoid wasps.

Some of these wasps target aphids, so if you do have a batch of aphids on a coriander plant, check for individuals that are bloated and discolored – these have already been parasitized, and you should leave them be. The wasps will do their job controlling these pests.

Learn more about controlling aphids in our article.

Cutworms

Have you ever admired your young crop of coriander seedlings, only to return the next day and find that some of them have vanished?

Cutworms were likely to blame for their disappearance.

These caterpillars tend to spend their days in the top layer of the soil. Emerging at night to feed, they often sever the stems of young seedlings.

While preparing your garden soil in the spring, if you happen upon a cutworm or two, they make a nice treat for neighboring wild birds, such as robins looking for food for their young.

There are ways to protect young seedlings from cutworms – learn more in our article.

Root-Knot Nematodes

Not to be confused with beneficial nematodes, root-knot nematodes are microscopic worm-like organisms that form galls on plant roots.

Signs that these organisms are attacking crops include coriander plants which have lost vigor or are turning yellow and wilting in hot weather.

Learn more about dealing with root-knot nematodes in our article.

Disease

These are some of the most common diseases to look out for on C. sativum:

Bacterial Leaf Spot

Have you noticed small, water-soaked spots on the foliage of your coriander crop?

Lesions caused by bacterial leaf spot, a type of bacterial disease which also affects turnips, will look tan or brown, changing to black and eventually becoming dry and papery.

This bacteria is transmitted from infected seed and then transferred to healthy foliage via splashing water.

Overhead watering, such as sprinkling, promotes the development of this disease, so water at the base of coriander plants instead.

Choose a resistant cultivar if this has been an issue in the past, and be sure to rotate crops in the same family.

Damping Off

There are few things more exciting than a sprouted coriander seed raising its seed leaves above the soil – but excitement can be quickly replaced with disappointment if damping off takes out the young seedling.

This fungal disease can occur when conditions are too damp or when a non-sterile growing medium is used.

Learn more about damping off in our article.

Powdery Mildew

Have you noticed powdery white or gray spots on your herb’s foliage?

Chances are a disease called “powdery mildew” is affecting your coriander plant.

This fungal disease occurs when conditions are humid but mild, in the 70 to 80°F range.

Luckily, powdery mildew on cilantro is not the end of the line for your herbs – treatment is possible!

There are many homemade and organic remedies for powdery mildew – learn about them in our article!

Harvesting

Cilantro leaves can be harvested at any time you like after the plants begin to grow, but you’ll want to allow seedlings to get established before you pick too many leaves.

A good rule of thumb is not to harvest more than a quarter of the plant’s foliage at one time if you want it to keep producing.

Also, wait a few days between harvests to avoid stressing coriander plants.

A little cilantro goes a long way, so if you want to keep a supply going as long as possible, just harvest it as you need it rather than picking a big bunch at one time.

On the other hand, if you do need a lot all at once, wait until the plant is about six inches tall. You can then cut the plant back to a couple of inches tall to allow it to regrow.

Once plants start to bolt, the leaves can start to develop a slightly bitter taste. If you let your plants flower and go to seed, you can harvest the seeds at either of two stages.

Some folks like to use green cilantro seeds in their culinary creations. But for a harvest of coriander spice that will keep in your spice rack, allow the seeds to dry and turn brown on the plant.

If you prefer to harvest mature coriander seeds, wait until the majority of them turn brown, then cut off the seed heads along with a few inches of stalk and place upside down in a paper bag.

Place the paper bag in a warm, well-ventilated location to allow the seeds to finish drying.

The seeds will eventually finish drying and fall out of the heads into the bottom of the bag. Store them in a lidded glass jar in a cool, dry location.

Storing and Preserving

While picking leaves as you need them is the best plan, when plants start to bolt you may want to harvest more than you can use.

Clean fresh coriander leaves by soaking them in a bowl, then spinning them dry in a salad spinner.

Next, sandwich the dried leaves between two paper towels to absorb excess moisture, and place them (along with the paper towels) in a sealed refrigerator container.

Fresh cilantro will keep in the fridge stored in this manner for one to two weeks.

If you have more than you can use in that amount of time, you may want to preserve the extra, and freezing is the preferred method for longer term storage.

While many herbs can be dried, doing so with fresh coriander will significantly change the flavor of this herb.

Learn how to freeze fresh herbs in our article.

As for coriander seeds, when harvested at the right stage, they can keep their flavor in storage for three to four years.

For maximum flavor, grind the seeds just as you need them.

Recipes and Cooking Ideas

If you’re considering growing cilantro in your garden, I’m guessing you already have plenty of ideas for how you’ll use this culinary herb with your meals – but just in case, let me give you some additional food for thought anyway.

Cilantro can be added to dishes while you’re cooking, but it will impart the most flavor if added fresh just before serving.

As a verified cilantro-head, one of my favorite ways to use coriander leaves when I have plenty growing in the garden is to whip up a batch of cilantro pesto.

If you’ve ever made a basil pesto from scratch, the idea with this variation is the same, just substitute cilantro for the basil.

I also like to switch out the traditional walnuts or pine nuts for pistachios, and use lime juice instead of lemon juice.

This pesto can be tossed with pasta, stirred into a pureed carrot soup, or used on pizza in place of tomato sauce.

Never made a fresh homemade pesto? No worries, you’ll find a pesto recipe to guide you from our sister site, Foodal.

While this pesto certainly puts cilantro in a starring role, there’s another delicious sauce where it can play an excellent supporting role. That’s in the classic fresh salsa, pico de gallo.

This fresh salsa is simple to make, and it incorporates other ingredients like tomatoes and jalapenos that you may have close at hand growing in your summer veggie garden. You’ll find a recipe for homemade pico de gallo at our sister site, Foodal.

Fresh sauces like pico de gallo seem to have uncountable uses, but sometimes you might want a hardier sauce, like when you’re trying to add a bit of protein to a meal.

Our herbe du jour can also be worked into a tahini sauce that can be drizzled onto falafel, avocado toast, and sweet potato fries, or used as a dressing to take a fresh green salad to a new level of bliss and satisfaction.

Find our recipe for vegan tahini sauce with cayenne on Foodal.

Finally, if you’re looking for a main dish where cilantro can steal the show, why not try this fabulous pumpkin curry?

The bright flavors of cilantro and lime team up to create a beautiful contrast to the earthy sweetness of pumpkin in this dish – which is perfect for serving over a bowl of rice or scooping up with some naan.

You’ll find the recipe for Asian style pumpkin curry on Foodal.

As for coriander seeds, they are a common ingredient in curries, pastries, homemade sausage, and brining or pickling mixes.

Need tips for cooking with this spice? Check out this article on cooking with coriander from Foodal.

Freezing bok choy is quick and easy. It’s a great way to savor that garden-fresh flavor all year long and have it on hand whenever you need it.

You can heat it up for a quick side dish, or use your frozen bok choy in any of your recipes.

In this post, I’ll show you exactly how to freeze bok choy fresh from your garden, the farmer’s market, or grocery store with easy-to-follow step by step instructions.

Preparing Bok Choy For Freezing

Before you freeze your bok choy, there are a few steps you need to take to get it ready. 

First, start by washing the leaves and stems to remove any dirt or debris. Use a damp paper towel or just gently rub them with your fingers as you rinse if they’re really dirty.

Next, pat them dry or use a salad spinner to remove as much of the excess water as possible.

If you plan to leave yours whole, then you’re done. Otherwise, cut off the very bottom of the stalk to separate the stems. Then chop the leaves and stems into bite-sized pieces.

Do You Have To Blanch Bok Choy Before Freezing?

You don’t have to blanch bok choy before freezing it, which is nice because it makes the process much faster.

Although you could blanch it first if you’d like, as it may help to preserve some of the flavor and color.

However, in my experience, I find that it becomes a bit mushier when I blanch it first, so I prefer to skip this step.

How To Blanch Bok Choy To Freeze

If you would like to blanch your bok choy before freezing it, bring a pot of water to a boil on the stove.

Place the bok choy (whole or in pieces) into a colander or steamer basket before putting it into the boiling water. Flash-cook it for 40 seconds, or until the leaves turn bright green.

Remove it from the pot and place it into an ice bath immediately to stop the cooking process, allowing it to cool for a few minutes.

Methods For Freezing Bok Choy

You can freeze your bok choy whole or chopped, or you can flash-freeze it first. The method you choose depends on how much time you have, and also how you plan to use it later on.

Freezing It Whole Or Cut Up

The quickest method is to leave the heads whole. But chopping then into pieces first will make it easier to use in your cooking and recipes, plus you can portion out only what you need.

The problem with doing it this way is that the pieces tend to clump together, which can make them difficult to separate.

Flash Freezing Bok Choy

Flash freezing bok choy first prevents the pieces from sticking together. However it is an extra step and does take a little longer.

If you want to try this, simply spread the cut up pieces evenly on a baking sheet lined with parchment paper. Then put it into the freezer for about 15 minutes, or until the pieces are firm to the touch.

Tools & Supplies Needed

Below is a list of equipment and tools that you will need to freeze bok choy. Depending on the method you choose, you might not need everything.

How To Store Bok Choy In The Freezer

The easiest way to store frozen bok choy is to use freezer-safe bags. Gently squeeze all of the extra air out of the bags before sealing them so they take up less space.

If you don’t want to use plastic, you can use any type of airtight freezer-friendly container you have.

Or you could use a food vacuum sealer for even better protection from freezer burn.

How Long Does Frozen Bok Choy Last?

Frozen bok choy can last 3-6 months or longer in the freezer, as long as you prepare it correctly and store it properly. 

FAQs

Below I have answered some of the most common questions I get about freezing bok choy. If you can’t find yours here, ask it in the comments section.

What is the best way to freeze bok choy?

The best way to freeze bok choy is to leave it raw, and either whole or cut into pieces. Then flash-freeze it before storing it in baggies.

Why did my frozen bok choy go mushy?

Frozen bok choy tends to go mushy if you cook it first, but it can happen with raw bok choy too. The best way to prevent this is to add it to your recipe frozen as you cook instead of thawing it first.

Can you freeze raw bok choy?

Yes you can freeze raw bok choy. In fact it’s better to freeze it raw, because when it’s cooked first it can become mushy. This is also the fastest way to do it.

Can bok choy be frozen without blanching?

Yes, bok choy can be frozen without blanching, and this is the method I recommend. While blanching could help it retain the color and flavor better, it also tends to make it mushier.

Can fresh bok choy be frozen?

Fresh bok choy can be frozen raw, and either whole or cut into pieces. It’s a good idea to flash-freeze it first to prevent it from sticking together.

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More About Food Preservation

Share your tips for freezing bok choy in the comments section below.

Step By Step Instructions

Mother’s Day is the perfect time to show your love and appreciation for the most important woman in your life. One of the best ways to do so is by sending her a beautiful bouquet of flowers. Mother’s Day bouquets have been a tradition for years, and they continue to be the most popular gift of choice. However, choosing the perfect bouquet can be a daunting task. With so many different combinations available, it’s easy to feel overwhelmed. To help you decide, one of our nation’s leading florists, provided some ideas on what is the best bouquet to select.

Here are some flower combinations they stated that will make your mom’s day on Mother’s Day.

Classic Combinations for Traditional Moms

For moms who appreciate tradition and classic styles, you can never go wrong with a bouquet of red roses. Roses are a timeless symbol of love and admiration, and they are perfect for expressing your gratitude to your mom on Mother’s Day. You can add some baby’s breath or greenery to make the bouquet even more beautiful. Another classic combination is a mix of pink and white blooms. This combination is perfect for moms who love feminine and delicate styles.

Bright and Bold Blooms for the Adventurous Mom

If your mother is adventurous and loves to explore new things, she’ll appreciate a bouquet of bright and bold blooms. Sunflowers, dahlias, and gerbera daisies are great choices for a vibrant and lively bouquet. You can add some greenery or yellow buds to complement the bright blooms.

Soft and Serene Arrangements for the Peaceful Mom

For mothers who love peace and serenity, a soft and serene arrangement will be perfect. Think pastel shades of pink, purple, and blue. Roses, peonies, and hydrangeas are great choices for a calming and peaceful bouquet. You can add some eucalyptus or lavender for an extra touch of relaxation.

Sweet and Simple Bouquets for the Minimalist Mom

If your mom loves minimalism and simplicity, a sweet and simple bouquet will be perfect for her. A bouquet of white tulips, ranunculus, or lilies will make her day. You can add some greenery or filler stems to add some texture and interest to the bouquet.

Fragrant Combinations for the Scent-Loving Mom

For mothers who love fragrant bouquets, a bouquet of scented blooms will be a perfect gift. Lavender, jasmine, and gardenias are great choices for a fragrant bouquet. You can add some roses or other filler flowers to complement the scent.

Unique Pairings for the Quirky Mom

If your mom has a quirky and unique personality, a bouquet of unusual stem pairings will be perfect for her. Consider mixing different types of flowers, colors, and textures. Proteas, succulents, and cacti are great choices for a unique and unexpected bouquet.

Colorful Mixes for the Cheerful Mom

If your mom loves colors and cheerful designs, a colorful bouquet will make her day. You can mix different types of flowers in vibrant shades of pink, purple, orange, and yellow. Think roses, tulips, and daisies. You can add some greenery or filler stems to make the bouquet even more cheerful.

Exotic Arrangements for the Worldly Mom

For moms who love to travel and explore different cultures, an exotic flower arrangement will be perfect for her. Think orchids, birds of paradise, and anthuriums. These flowers have unique shapes and colors that will make her feel like she’s traveling the world through bouquets.

Elegant and Sophisticated Bouquets for the Stylish Mom

For moms who love elegance and sophistication, a bouquet of elegant blooms will be perfect for her. Think lilies, orchids, and roses in shades of pink, white, and purple. You can add some greenery or filler buds to add some texture and interest to the bouquet. A bouquet wrapped in luxurious wrapping paper or tied with a satin ribbon will make the gift even more elegant.

Romantic Combinations for the Loving Mom

Finally, for moms who love all things romantic, a bouquet of romantic flowers will be perfect. Think red roses, peonies, and ranunculus. These symbolize love and passion, and they are perfect for expressing your love to your mom. You can add some baby’s breath or greenery to make the bouquet even more beautiful.

Rustic Flower Combinations for the Nature-Loving Mother

If your mom loves nature and rustic charm, a bouquet of wildflowers, herbs, and foliage will be perfect for her. Consider daisies, sunflowers, lavender, and eucalyptus. These flowers and greenery have a natural and organic feel that will bring the beauty of nature into her home. You can add some twine or burlap wrapping to complete the rustic look of the bouquet. Your mother will love the earthy and natural vibes of this combination.

Modern Arrangements for the Trendy Mom

For moms who love modern and contemporary styles, a sleek and sophisticated flower arrangement will be perfect for her. Think monochromatic bouquets, asymmetrical designs, and unique flower combinations. Proteas, succulents, and anthuriums are great choices for a modern and trendy bouquet. You can add some metallic accents or geometric vases to make the gift even more modern. Your mother will appreciate the stylish and chic design of this flower combination.

Monochromatic Bouquets for the Minimalist Mother 

If your mom loves minimalism and simplicity, a monochromatic bouquet will be perfect for her. You can choose a single color and use different shades and textures of flowers in that color to create a beautiful and elegant bouquet. Think white, pink, or yellow flowers. Roses, peonies, and hydrangeas are great choices for a monochromatic bouquet. You can add some greenery or filler flowers in the same color family to add some depth and interest to the bouquet. Your mother will love the understated and sophisticated design of this flower combination.

Thank you to Kremp Florist for their guidance in selecting a Mother’s Day bouquet.

Watering a garden

This is a term that describes the method by which water is applied to crops. As watering is one of the most important garden operations, it is essential that the most efficient system be used. Such has been the progress with modern equipment that there is a large number of different types of water appliances on the market.

The selection must depend on the area of ground which has to be dealt with and the type of crop grown and its water requirement. One of the simplest forms of irrigation is practiced in China where a large number of channels are dug out of fields so that water from a nearby river can be directed to water crops growing in the fields. This is not done in England but there are several simple methods which can be used.

This takes the form of a length of thin plastic or rubber tubing which has spray nozzles for hoses fitted at regular intervals. When this tubing is connected to the water supply, the water percolates slowly through these nozzles and soaks the soil around them. If the tubing is arranged so that the nozzles coincide with individual plants, water requirements can be concentrated just where it is needed.

Gardeners will find this system one answer to the holiday watering problem especially as it can be used in the greenhouse or frames equally well. As watering or irrigation is particularly troublesome in the greenhouse, a special irrigation bench has been developed. This works on the capillary system where water is allowed to seep into a bed of sand on the staging. The sand is maintained in a moist condition all the time. Pot plants placed on the sand take up the moisture, aided in the case of clay pots by the use of a small piece of glass fiber wick which is inserted through the drainage hole on the pot’s base. Plastic pots do not require this as they are in closer contact to the sand owing to their thin section. One big advantage with this system is that plants can take up just sufficient water for their own individual needs.

For large areas of the garden or growing crops, metal spray lines are ideal as these throw a large volume of water through holes or nozzles in the metal pipes. Pipes can be purchased in various lengths and can be quickly connected together so that very long rows of crops can be dealt with at one time. The more expensive systems are oscillating types that turn left and right by a water pressure operated unit at one end of the pipeline. The pipes are laid on low metal legs or support above the crops. This system of irrigation is particularly suited to the commercial grower.

The amateur gardener can water quite large areas if he uses the oscillating type of sprinkler which can be set or ‘dialed’ to water preset areas. The water pressure drives a system of nylon gear wheels which turn the spray unit. Many models will work successfully on water pressure as low as 10-15kg (20-30lb) per 6 sq cm (sq in). Smaller areas can be watered in the same way if smaller models are used.

Irrigation can be employed in the form of revolving sprinklers which eject a fine spray of water over a circular area. In the more elaborate types, the arc of working can be set or adjusted so that difficult areas (a wedge-shaped area, for example) can be irrigated.

Successful irrigation also depends on having a good supply of water at convenient parts of the garden, especially if it is a large one. Although hose pipes are necessary for connection purposes to the various pieces of equipment used, convenient points in the garden will considerably facilitate irrigation plans. For this purpose, polyethylene tubing can be buried underground to connect to a series of standpipes of the same material. These can be fitted Hozelock hose pipe connectors and on/off switches.

Irrigation is important for plants grown under cloches and frames. Trickle irrigation lines under them laid on the soil by the plants will ensure that plenty of water will reach the roots quickly. There are some cloche and frame designs which have built-in irrigation in the apex of the roof. This usually takes the form of the perforated pipe which, when connected to the hose pipe waters plants underneath by a fine spray of water.

There is no doubt that with a little ingenuity and with the aid of the modern equipment available, the average gardener can install an irrigation system in his own garden

Yesterday I made the mistake of looking up various bamboo trellis designs earlier today, then found myself out at the edge of the yard with a sawsall, cutting canes to drag back to the garden.

I’m thinking of building something like this:

Unfortunately, that website now does not exist, though I found the text describing the trellis build via the Internet Wayback Machine. The rest of the photos are gone, however.

We’ve made some bamboo trellises before – they are not only useful, they are beautiful.

Well, I mean, they CAN be beautiful. That one above is probably the ugliest one I ever made, but I was in a hurry.

Anyhow – once I got a bunch of bamboo cut and dragged to the garden yesterday afternoon, I got distracted by a friend’s visit and ended up planting some peaches and cassava  and doing some weeding instead.

Maybe I’ll work on it this evening. It’s pouring right now.

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Whether you’re hoping to pot up a few to nurture on a sunny windowsill, or you have a patch of sandy ground in full sun that’s just begging to be filled, the following tips will help you to become the best succulent parent on the block.

Let the Light Shine

Most succulents are native to hot and dry climates, and their illumination needs are high. For this reason, full sun is a must.

They can do well in a particularly warm and bright window, and moving your outdoor succulents to pots indoors in the winter is recommended in cold climates. But keep in mind that indoor plants won’t typically bloom for you.

Of course, many gardeners love a challenge, and coaxing flowers to emerge indoors isn’t completely outside the realm of possibility if you’re using grow lights.

Some succulents can also tolerate a bit of shade, and many that have been grown in dappled sun or partial shade for a time will actually change colors when they’re exposed to bright light.

There’s no easy rule of thumb as far as watering frequency goes; recommendations to water once or twice a week might seem like a magic fix, but the truth is, many factors play a role – including the size of your plants and the pots or area they’re planted in, the average temperature and humidity, and the time of year.

Don’t be afraid to dip your finger a few inches into the dirt to see how well-watered your babies really are, and use a rain gauge outdoors to monitor precipitation.

This is the case especially if you’re transferring your succulents from indoor pots to the ground with the return of warm weather each year, or repotting annually in new soil.

But keep in mind that overwatering, planting in inadequate soil to begin with, or even a healthy period of growth and blooming can deplete soil nutrients more rapidly, and a lack of blooms or failure to thrive in other ways can also serve as indications that some intervention is required.

Be sure to use a low-nitrogen, slow-release fertilizer that is recommended for succulent plants. Compost tea is another option favored by many gardeners. Add either of these to the base of succulents in moist soil, and be sure to avoid the plant itself to prevent leaf burn.

Succulents are also prone to rotting when there is too much nitrogen in the soil or potting mix, so if you choose to amend your potting medium, this is yet another reason to apply a slow-release, low-nitrogen product.

Plants in small pots will typically need less than what’s recommended on the label, and dilution with water is recommended. Application of too much fertilizer can encourage leggy growth, and fertilizers should only be applied after new growth appears in the spring and when plants are in an active growth phase, not in the winter when plants go dormant.

One additional caveat to keep in mind: an indoor environment differs greatly from the conditions that plants experience when grown in a hot and dry climate outdoors. For many plants, dormancy actually occurs during the hottest months of August and September, whereas wet and mild winters might encourage a period of active growth.

Keep your location in mind, and be observant of your plants. As you become more familiar with their growth habits and healthy appearance, you’ll become a better judge of what they’re telling you, and better able to meet their needs. Keeping a gardening journal can help you to track ther progress.

Almost Trouble-Free

So far, so good – right?

Provide adequate sunlight and good drainage, avoid overwatering and overfertilizing, and you’re on your way to growing a garden full of beautiful succulents!

Here’s the good news: That’s pretty much it, in terms of regular care.

But sometimes, you have a rainy summer and outdoor plants become sodden, or your plant sitter is heavy-handed with the watering can. In these cases, excess moisture makes them vulnerable to pests like snails, mealybugs, aphids, and scale, fungal disease, and rot.

Here’s how to handle the challenges that sometimes arise:

Remove snails by hand at night, or on a cloudy day immediately following a rainstorm, when they’re most active.

Spray whitish mealybugs and their web-like mess with a strong stream of water, or a solution of half denatured alcohol and half water. Or, remove them with cotton swabs soaked in rubbing alcohol.

Aphids are another pest that can be a problem. They feed on plant juices and may destroy vulnerable plants, like those that have been overwatered.

If you see an infestation, spray them away with a steady stream of water.

Similarly, insects called scale like to feed on juices, and succulents make quite a feast. They look like brown spots.

Destroy soft ones by scratching them off with your fingernail. For harder bugs, gently rub on some denatured alcohol that has been diluted by half with water. Discard leaves that don’t respond to treatment.

Other brown spots or patches may be caused by edema, which is swelling from over-watering.

In addition to over-watering, plants may get too much moisture from humid air. So, promote air circulation by spacing potted plants generously, and keeping them out of moist places like laundry areas and bathrooms.

Dried out leaves can be gently removed, and plants that have been severely dehydrated can often be saved at least in part by propagating new ones from whatever healthy portions are left. See our guide to succulent propagation for advice.

And finally, plants that are handled or bumped frequently may develop blemishes that penetrate the flesh of a leaf or stem, and heal with a scar.

Keep any eye on blemished leaves and stems of all types, and treat or discard as needed. If any type of infestation or blight becomes a regular problem, consider taking a healthy cutting to start a new plant, or discard the plant entirely.

Don’t worry if you lose a few on your way to becoming a pro – it’s part of the learning process.

Indoor light is not as intense as outdoor sunshine. Watch your plants for leggy growth. This may indicate that they are stretching to reach daylight.

If this is the case, consider supplementing with a grow light.

For plants that remain indoors year-round, unpot and examine the roots each spring. While most varieties are rather shallow-rooted, you may need to repot if they become tightly wound.

You may place houseplants outside for the summer. Introduce them gradually early in the season by setting them in an area of partial shade at first, then in full sun or partial shade as appropriate.

Those that will be returned to your garden beds and planted in the ground may also be introduced to the outdoors a little at a time by placing pots in a partially shaded area, and allowing them to acclimate to outdoor conditions for several days before planting.

Unpot and place them in appropriately amended garden soil when the sun is still low on a warm morning, to minimize transition stress.

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A garden is the pride and joy of many homeowners. You might think that improving a garden has to be very expensive, but you can put your DIY skills to use and spend time on a few projects that transform your outdoor space.

Even complete beginners can make a significant difference to their garden on a budget. Spending time on garden projects also allows you to connect with nature, get some exercise, and enjoy the outdoors.

In this article, we’ll guide you through unique DIY garden projects for beginners. Each project is easy to do, and also creative enough for more experienced DIYers and gardeners.

Explore the charm of raised beds

Raised beds can be an excellent solution for gardens of any size, including ones with limited space. They can provide better drainage, improved soil quality, and easier access for planting, weeding, and harvesting.

Raised beds can be made of various materials, from wood, stone, and bricks to recycled materials like pallets. You could even get a bulk quantity of sleepers from Suregreen. Creating raised beds yourself allows you to customise them based on your available space and preferences. They can be an attractive feature in your garden, especially when you combine them with a variety of colourful flowers, herbs, or vegetables.

If you decide that raised beds are the right DIY project for you, there are some things you need to consider. First, you should choose a suitable location. Then, you need to measure and level the area. Select suitable materials and fill the beds with quality soil. Remember to avoid chemicals that could harm soil, plants, or wildlife.

Add more structure with a garden path

Paths in your garden can be both practical and decorative. Gravel, stone, wood, or bricks could help you to create a designated area for walking or separate the key areas of your garden.

To make sure that you’re happy with the results of your project, you need to decide what style of path you’d prefer – for example, straight or curved, natural or formal, patterned or mosaic design. At the beginning of the project, you should measure and mark out the path. Then, prepare the ground and choose the right materials. You also need to incorporate proper drainage and stability; using sleepers in the process of constructing the path could help you ensure that it is stable and will last for years to come.

Reduce waste with a compost bin

Composting is a sustainable way to reduce waste in your household and create nutrient-rich soil for your garden. To make your own compost, you need to collect organic materials such as kitchen scraps, garden waste, and leaves, and let them decompose over time in a compost bin.

DIY compost bins are easy to make and are an ideal project for any beginner. You can customise them according to your available space. Wood, wire mesh, and plastic containers are some of the materials you could use for the project. Make sure you choose a suitable location and add a balance of green and brown materials. Most importantly, turn the compost regularly. After a few months you will be able to provide your plants with essential nutrients and improve soil structure – all for free.

Create a vertical garden

Vertical gardens allow you to maximise space and add greenery to a small area. Using vertical gardens could help you to grow plants on a wall, fence, or in a container. They also provide several benefits, such as improved air quality and reduced noise pollution.

DIY vertical gardens can be made from pallets, containers, hanging baskets, and other materials. You can tailor them to the amount of space you have available, or to plants that you prefer. When creating a vertical garden, you need to choose a good location, then select the right plants and ensure proper drainage. You should also make sure that you can water the plants easily.

Design and build a garden bench

Your garden should be a place where you can wind down after a difficult day and find some peace. And to do that, you should have a space to sit and be comfortable. Creating a garden bench is an easy project for beginners, and it gives you an excellent opportunity to let your creativity run free.

Just like in other projects, you can use a variety of materials like pallets, concrete, or wood. You can design the bench to match the style and colours of your garden. Those who feel a bit more adventurous could even include features such as built-in planters or storage. Before you cut into the material, ensure that your measurements are right. You might also want to finish the bench with weather-resistant coating to boost its longevity.

Attract more wildlife with a birdhouse

Another way to transform your garden into a tranquil sanctuary is to bring in more wildlife. A birdhouse could help you to attract birds into your garden and provide them with a safe and comfortable nesting space. At the same time, birdhouses can act as a decorative feature in your garden, especially when you paint or decorate them.

Creating a birdhouse can be easy; all you need is wood or tin cans with no sharp edges. You can customise the design based on the type of birds you’d like to see in your garden, and adjust its size accordingly. Attracting more birds to your garden could help you with pest control and create a delightful chirping ambience.

Find shelter in a garden arbour

Garden arbours are another element that could help you to make your garden more homely and peaceful. They provide a shaded area where you can relax and enjoy some privacy. They can also add a decorative feature to your garden. To enhance the look, you might want to decorate the arbour with climbing plants or hanging planters.

To build a garden arbour you could use materials such as wood and metal, or even utilise old doors or windows. You need to make sure that your measurements are correct and that the structure has enough support and is stable. Once you finish the project, you can benefit from the shade and create a focal point in your garden.

Plant a herb garden

Herb gardens are ideal DIY garden projects for beginners. Growing your own herbs could help you to make your household more sustainable. With fresh and flavourful cooking ingredients in your garden you can remove items from your shopping list, and also bring delightful fragrances into your outdoor space.

When it comes to growing herbs you have lots of options, including using pots, raised beds, or planting them directly into the ground. Before you plant the herbs, you need to choose a suitable location with enough sunlight. Ensure that you use the right soil and drainage, and space the herbs properly.

Planting a herb garden obviously helps with your cooking, but it will also bring more colour and fragrance into the garden and attract insects and pollinators that will support your local ecosystem.

Enhance the elegance of your garden with macrame

The beautiful art of macrame could help you to give a unique touch to your garden décor. This method of knotting strings or cords to create intricate patterns and designs allows you to create plant hangers, wall hangings, or even outdoor curtains.

Macrame decorations are most often made with white cord. However, there are many colours, and you can tailor each piece to your taste. Before you get started with macrame projects, you might want to master the basic knots. Adding macrame elements to your garden can bring in more texture and make the space more visually interesting. It could also help you tune into the bohemian vibe and make the garden look cosy.

Keep track of your plants with garden markers

This is another great option when it comes to DIY garden projects for beginners. Garden markers can be useful for identifying and labelling your plants, especially if you have a variety of herbs, flowers, or vegetables in your garden. You can make your own from wood, ceramic, or even lolly sticks to create unique markers that will help you to keep your garden a bit more organised.

If you make your own garden markers you can fully tailor them to your personal style. Make sure you’re working with durable and weather-resistant materials, and use a waterproof pen or paint for labelling.

Boost wildlife with a water feature

Water features can help you to attract wildlife into your garden and create an ideal environment for birds, insects, and amphibians. Creating a pond in your garden might sound like a difficult project to take on, but you can keep it simple if you stick to a small scale. All you need is a pot or a tub, sand and gravel.

If you’d prefer a water feature instead of a pond, you can make a small one using a pot and a water pump. The rest of the project completely depends on your vision and personal taste.

Transform your creative ideas into reality

As you can see, there are plenty of DIY garden projects for beginners. You might feel uncertain and nervous if you’ve never worked on a DIY project before, but all you need to do is dive in and improve your skills as you go. You don’t need to be an expert or have a large budget to make your garden beautiful and functional.

Being a gardener comes with the understanding that, for the most part, you are in a cooperative relationship with Nature. It’s an ongoing relationship of learning to become a more capable manager of the favorable and unfavorable conditions and variables that present themselves.

Acceptance

In the past, I’ve experienced major disease loss (10,000 plants killed by a blight), periodic infestations and ongoing challenges with weather or soil borne diseases and garden pests. However, I’ve come to a wonderful part of my gardening life.that of acceptance. that I’m just one part of the whole lifecycle process of nature and my environment.

My influence in my gardening practice is only a temporary one and carries with it a responsibility and respect for all other forms of life. Although I’ve challenged many times, especially by gophers, deer and a variety of bugs and viruses, I’ve made the personal choice not to poison.

I support sustainable farming practices and a comfortable degree of cooperation with the critters and the pests that enter my garden.or my life.

In the information that follows I hope to be of some assistance in alleviating some of the frustration that comes with identifying a problem, and how best to alleviate the difficulty.whether that means taking action, no action, or learning to accept what you cannot change, or to prepare you for future successful tomato harvests.

I intend to provide you additional information here in the future. I’m hoping you find this information useful and I welcome your feedback. – Gary Ibsen

Blossom End Rot:

Blossom end rot is most often caused by a calcium deficiency, which can be due to an acidic soil, irregular watering and water-logging, or an ongoing high humidity with a low transpiration generally caused by reduced air movement.

Calcium is an essential plant food in the soil.

When there is an excess presence of soluble salts such as ammonium, potassium, magnesium, or sodium the effective concentration of calcium available to the plant decreases more rapidly than that of other salts. Both excessively dry and excessively wet weather can adversely change the ratio of calcium salts.

Heavily pruned tomato plants appear to be more susceptible to blossom end rot.

Advice: On watering: Do not over water your young plants. Once a seedling is established it should be encouraged to develop a deep and extensive root system by stressing the plant slightly by letting it dry slightly. (Watch your plant. It will let you know when to water again.) With a sufficient root system, the plant is more capable of drawing up sufficient nutrition and water.

Give your plants a good watering on the day of planting so the soil becomes nicely saturated. In the first week of planting, water again every couple of days, then extend the period between watering, cutting back to a good deep soaking once a week in the first month. After 2-4 trusses of flowers have set is the time to increase watering. Then water your plants regularly and evenly.Mulching the soil and watering as needed during dry spells should keep the problem in check.

To help avoid problems developing, I suggest encouraging better air circulation under the plant by planting seedlings sufficiently apart to allow for airflow. I usually trim the bottom 16″ of each plant of all stems and suckers other than 4-5 main stems. This serves to reduce the relative humidity around the base of the plants.

To help avoid blossom end rot, add some super phosphate fertilizer, fertilizer that is high in phosphorous and low in nitrogen. Work it into your soil before you plant your tomato plants. You can use calcium sulfate, better known as gypsum, in place of the super phosphate. An application of lime may also assist as a side dressing.

Blossom-Drop:

This is a very common problem and not easy to correct since this is most commonly caused by the weather. Many tomato varieties will set fruit only within a fairly narrow range of night temperatures. Temps above 55 degrees for at least a portion of the night are required for the first fruit set and night temps above 75 degrees can inhibit fruit set and cause blossom drop. With night temps below 55 the germination is so slow that the blossom may drop before fertilization occurs. Most of the cooler growing region varieties can set fruit at lower temperatures and there are, as well, varieties that will set at temps above 75 degrees at night. Every area has its good and bad years for growing tomatoes that may show up in only portions of the summer. (Like a heat wave could hit for several days and knock the blossoms off.) Advice: In the early spring you can try to increase the night temperatures by covering the young plants with a fabric cover or tents. Offering some protection from strong winds helps, and you can even try this.daily vibration of the flower clusters to increase fertilization. Probably the best you can do is to keep your plant healthy. (Healthy kids are less apt to catch a cold.that sort of reasoning.) By watering deeply you encourage roots to dig deep and the plant is less vulnerable to minor stresses. Make sure that your soil contains adequate organic matter. Apply a balanced fertilizer at planting and again when fruit forms. And remember that too much nitrogen encourages the plant to grow more foliage. not more fruit. Nothing you do will guarantee fruit set. But having patience will help you feel better till the weather changes.

Septoria Leaf Spot:

Leaves on the lower branches of tomato plants are typically affected with brown spots, followed by yellowing or browning of the leaves. Wet weather may encourage the disease to progress up the plant.

Advice: Try mulching to help reduce soil splash onto the plant, which can in turn reduce leaf diseases. Lift your plants off the ground. Staked tomatoes will have better air circulation, which will discourage disease.

Also, it’s best to remove the infected leaves as soon as you notice them to help reduce spread. I suggest removing the infected plants at the end of the season and also practice a 3-year crop rotation.

Sunscald:

Sunscald most commonly appears on immature, green fruit. It first shows up as a white or yellow patch on the side of the fruit that faces the sun. Spot usually developes into a blister then forms a grey-white spot with a papery surface.

Advice: Leaf cover is your best protection. Plants that have been properly watered, and nourished have the best chance of growing a lush, protective canopy of leaves. Trellising or cages are best to protect your tomatoes. Don’t buy those wimpy conical cages. Your tomato plant will outgrow these in no time.

I suggest tying up your plants in a trellis between stakes or make your own from concrete-reinforcing wire available at lumber yards. Make these cages about 30 inches in diameter and for better stability you may wish to attach each one to a stake driven into the ground. You’ll create a dense, protective canopy of foliage if you tuck the leaf stems into the squares of the tomato cage.

Catfacing:

A problem that occurs to the blossom end of the fruits when they become puckered with deep scars that penetrate the fruit. This most often occurs only to large fruited varieties when bloom set happens during cooler weather. Bloom set during warm weather will probably not result in catfacing. So this is another case where noting can be done except hope for warm weather at the time of bloom set.

Fruit Cracking:

There are two kinds of fruit cracking – radial and concentric. Radial cracking is the most common. This occurs during rainy periods when the temperatures are above 90 degrees, especially when the rains come after a long dry spell. These are conditions that encourage rapid growth to ripening fruit. Tomatoes that are exposed to more direct sunlight, versus having good canopy coverage, are more susceptible to cracking.

Advice: Encourage even watering of your plants and an adequate canopy of leaves for shading from the sun.

Leaf Roll:

This is not the leaf roll caused by disease. This is the kind of leaf roll caused by prolonged rains and a saturated soil.or even by pruning your plant too much. (Some varieties are more susceptible to leaf roll than others.) The lowest leaves are the first to roll, and rolling continues throughout the plant’s leaves.

Advice: The best you can do is to maintain a uniform soil moisture, and an even watering schedule. Using a mulch can help level off moisture level peaks and falls.

Insects:

The actual damage done by insects is generally minimal compared to the damage done by spreading diseases by the insects. This is the primary reason for controlling insects. The best recommendation I can offer is to remove weeds from around the perimeter of your tomato plants. These are perfect breeding places for insects.

Whiteflies:

I hear of whitefly problems often.most often from gardeners in the Southeast and in tropical islands. This pest is more than frustrating. Both the adult whiteflies and the larvae can damage tomato plants by sucking the sap from the leaves and excreting a sticky honeydew that coats the leaves and fruits. A black sooty fungus then grows on this honeydew. Whitefly infestation will cause wilting, deformed new growth and plant damage. Whiteflies can also transmit some plant viruses.

Advice: Regularly check the undersides of leaves to monitor for both adults and nymphs. And watch for flying whiteflies by gently knocking your tomato leaves. This is a good way to monitor adult activity because they are easily disturbed and will fly away. Your local garden center may also sell yellow sticky cards for measuring the number of adult whiteflies that are flying. In a small-garden environment, these sticky cards may also manage your whitefly populations by killing the adults.

One of the best methods for avoiding whitefly problems is to buy clean plants. Inspect your tomato plants before you buy them with whiteflies already on them.

Spraying water from the garden hose underneath the leaf can also reduce the number of adults and reduce the number of eggs being laid. You can benefit greatly by trying beneficial insects. In nature there is almost always a predator or parasitic insect that feeds on a pest insect. The insects that destroy plants are ‘bad insects’ and the insects that prey on the bad bugs are ‘beneficials’ or good insects. Lacewings and Encarsia Formosa are some of the best beneficials you can release.

Hornworms:

Hornworms can eat considerable amounts of foliage off your tomato plants.

Advice: These can be picked off by hand. Your best control is to keep an eye on your plants for invaders.

Early Blight:

This is a fungus and a problem in moist areas of spring/summer rains. This is not usually a problem in the arid areas of the west. Early blight shows up as small, irregular, brown, dead spots on lower, older leaves. The spots then grow to ½-inch in “bulls-eye” patterns. The whole leaf then may go yellow. As fruit begins to occur, when suffering from blight, the older fruits may show dark leathery sunken spots.

Late Blight:

This is a fungus that can be serious during extended periods of muggy, damp weather with cool nights and warm days. Fungus shows up as greasy, black areas on the leaves. A fine gray mold can be seen on the leaf underside during wet periods. Hot dry weather usually impedes the progress of this fungus.

Verticillium Wilt:

The first indication of verticillium wilt is a yellowing of the first, older, leaves along with a slight wilting of the tips. These older leaves soon wither and drop off leading to the whole plant losing its leaves. All branches of the plant tend to look weaker than the branches of healthier plants. In the late stages of the disease, only the uppermost branches remain alive. And the loss of the plant’s foliage leaves the fruit open for sunscald.

Advice: Provide well-drained soil for your plants. Crop rotation for 4-5 years with non-related crops.

Fusarium Wilt:

This is one of the most damaging and prevalent, soil-borne, tomato diseases.

This fungus over-winters and survives for many years in the soil. The disease is spread is by seed, transplants, and soil on farm machinery or even footwear. The organism generally doesn’t cause serious loss problems unless the soil and air temps are steadily around 90 degrees. Fusarium wilt is noticed in seedlings with drooping of the oldest leaves usually followed by the plant’s death. Older plants can be affected at any stage of growth but most often during maturing of the fruit.

The earliest symptom is a yellowing of the older leaves. The yellow leaves gradually die off. Frequently a single shoot is killed off before the rest of the plant shows any sign of a problem.

Sometimes only one side of the plant shows problems. If you cut lengthwise the stem of a wilted plant, the woody part next to the green outer cortex shows a dark brown discoloration of the tissue.

Advice: The best way out of this is the rotation of crops other than tomatoes for several years.

The following is a list of tomato terms I assembled to provide you useful information while you shop for the most suitable varieties of tomatoes for your garden.

Beefsteak – A type of tomato rather than a variety (although there really is a particular variety named ‘Beefsteak.’) Usually considered a large, irregular shaped tomato with solid flesh.
Cotyledons – The first leaves formed from the seed.

Crack Resistant – A tomato that inherently resistant to cracking, a problem usually caused where rain falls sporadically, or where there is excessive rain.

Cultivar – The variety of a plant. However, technically there is a difference between cultivar and variety. Cultivar is considered to be a product of intentional breeding whereas Variety is the product of accidental crossing. The terms are commonly used interchangeably.

Determinate – When terminal buds set fruit plant growth stops. Plant needs little or no staking. Harvest is only about a week to ten days.

Globe – A round shaped tomato.

Heirloom – An heirloom is generally considered to be a variety that has been passed down, through several generations of a family because of it’s valued characteristics. Since ‘heirloom’ varieties have become popular in the past few years there have been liberties taken with the use of this term for commercial purposes. Heirloom tomato experts, Craig LeHoullier and Carolyn Male, Ph.D. have classified down heirlooms into four categories: 
Commercial Heirlooms: Open-pollinated varieties introduced before 1940. 
Family Heirlooms: Seeds that have been passed down for several generations through a family. 

Created Heirlooms: Crossing two known parents (either two heirlooms or an heirloom and a hybrid) and dehybridizing the resulting seeds for how ever many years/generations it takes to eliminate the undesirable characteristics and stabilize the desired characteristics, perhaps as many as 8 years or more. 

Mystery Heirlooms: Varieties that are a product of natural cross-pollination of other heirloom varieties. 

Note: All heirloom varieties are open-pollinated but not all open-pollinated varieties are heirloom varieties.)

Hybrid pollination – Cross pollination accomplished by removing anthers of parent x before the release of pollen. Y parent’s anther tube is opened and pollen removed to deposit on stigma of parent x.

Indeterminate – Plants that will keep growing and producing new blossoms even after fruit set. Harvest may last for several months.

Locules – Chambers within the tomato’s fruit that hold the seeds within a jelly-like substance. Most fruits have 2 or more chambers and large fruited varieties have as many as 10.

Lycopersicon esculentum – The genus and species name for Tomato. All plants have a genus and species name, which are indicated in italics.

Maturity – The number of days from transplanting seedling to the first mature fruit. Early-Season varieties generally mature between 55 to 68 days; Midseason varieties- 69 to 79 days; Late season varieties from 80 days and beyond.

Oblate – A slightly flattened round shape of a tomato.

Open-pollinated – Seeds from open-pollinated varieties produce plants and fruit that are identical to their parent. (Note: All heirloom varieties are open-pollinated but not all open-pollinated varieties are heirloom varieties.)

Personal favorite – A variety that has been a favorite through years of growing.

Pollination – Pollen grains released by anther and fall to the stigma, usually of the same flower.

Potato-leaf – Foliage without indentations on leaf margins. Looks similar to leaves of potato plant.

Regular-leaf – Foliage with indentations on the leaf margins.

Semi-Determinate – tomato plants are larger than determinate (bush types) but smaller than Indeterminate plants. These plants usually require staking.

Widely adapted – A variety adapted to growing well in several growing zones. 

Tomatoes are a great, nutritious, and rewarding plant that you can enjoy for many months to come – but how do you grow them? And, more importantly, how to grow tomatoes in pots?

If you have a small garden or no garden at all, you can still cultivate these wonderful fruits with just a little bit of insight – and very little hard work. This guide or this tomato growing guide provides some insights as to the process that’s required to enjoy your organically grown tomatoes.

Below are also some tips that you may find useful.

Tips for growing tomatoes in pots

1. Choose the right types of pot for tomatoes

With growing any type of plant in a pot, you have to remember to make sure there is adequate drainage. If there aren’t drainage holes then your plants will rot, so make sure that your pots have holes to let the water out.

If you are growing a small tomato plant then you can get away with a smaller pot, but if your beast is a larger variety then you will, of course, need a bigger pot.

Remember that smaller pots will need watering more frequently as they are not able to retain as much water.

2. Select the types of tomato for growing in pots

Just about any type of tomato can be grown in a pot. Whether they are big, beefsteak tomato or small cherry tomatoes, they will all do just fine in a potted environment.

You can grow any type or species of tomato in a pot; just remember that the bigger ones will need a bigger pot environment and the smaller ones will be ok in a smaller pot. You can even get trailing tomatoes that suit a hanging basket environment!

3. Pick the best soil for tomatoes in pots

Soil that you collect from other planting beds is not the best choice for tomatoes, as it is often too compact and doesn’t give the tomatoes’ roots enough space to grow.

Buy a quality potting mix, which is lighter and better at draining, for your precious pots. You can find this type of soil at any good gardening center, or you can buy soil that is specifically designed for growing tomatoes.

4. Follow these simple steps to grow seedlings

Take a packet of your chosen tomato seeds and sprinkle a few over the prepared soil. They may not all germinate, so err on the side of generosity.

Water the soil gently so you don’t disturb the seeds too much – use a watering can with a rose.

Cover the seeds lightly with a dusting of soil – no more than an inch deep.

When the first green shoots appear, continue to water when the soil looks dry.

Transplant the seedlings to a new pot when they grow larger, so the roots have more room to grow.

As the plants grow bigger, you may wish to prop them up or tie the branches to a higher level so they can stretch out and grow.

5. Repot tomatoes to larger posts once ready

You will almost certainly have to transfer your tomatoes to larger pots unless you sow them in the pot that you intend to keep them in. Tomatoes can handle a relatively small pot and still produce well, but like all plants, they need space for their roots to grow.

• Let your toms dry out for a day or two. This will make it easier to remove them from their pots.
• Prepare the larger pot by filling it about two thirds of the way up with quality compost, and make a well in the middle.
• With one hand around the base of your tomato plant, carefully turn it upside down. Pull on the pot to remove it – you can squeeze the edges a little if it is slow to come out.
• Place the root ball directly into the larger pot, then fill it with more compost.
• Water the repotted plant well, and keep an eye on it for a few days to make sure it settles in.

6. Pick the best fertilizer to feed tomatoes in pots

Tomatoes are a relatively easy plant to grow – they tend to just grow with very little input from you! However, you can make them grow better, and bigger, by adding a few choice nutrients to their soil.

Tomatoes like Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium, which should be fed to them regularly at the height of the growing season (around once a fortnight is fine).

You can also buy fertilizer that is specific to feeding tomatoes, which you can find at any garden center.

If you prefer a DIY approach, an example of organic fertilizer is crushed eggshells that can be mixed into the soil. 

Dos and don’ts of growing tomatoes in pots

• Add support once your tomatoes grow. They will need canes to lean up against, and some may benefit from having their tops tied to a high rafter, or being put into a sturdy cage.
• Water them regularly. Tomatoes are pretty thirsty, and will like to live in soil that is moist.
• Don’t over water. Conversely, too much water can lead to the roots rotting.
• Keep them in a sunny place. Tomatoes need at least six hours of sunlight a day to thrive and produce well.
• Don’t place them too close together. Keeping your tomatoes close enough that their leaves can touch will not only inhibit growth, but it can spread diseases from one plant to another.

Final words

Growing tomatoes in pots is easy, fun, and very rewarding. It can help to reduce the potential for diseases such as blight, and may also prevent pest infestations – plus it’s a great option for those with limited or no garden space.

Only the highest-quality seed, purchased from a reputable source, should be sown. It will probably have been prepared by acid extraction, to reduce the chances of spreading any seed-borne diseases. Most seedsmen supply their seeds in sealed laminated-foil packets, to prevent moisture absorption and loss of vitality. Seed stored in these sealed packets retains its ger­minating power for several years. There is little point in saving your own seed but if you decide to do so you should extract it by the hydrochloric-acid method. Do not save seed from any F1 hybrids—they do not breed true to type.

There are about 150 to 250 tomato seeds in a gram; usually 100 to 200 good seedlings are obtained from each gram that is sown. The weight of a seed varies considerably, according to the variety and the conditions under which it has been produced.

Strict hygiene during propagation is essential. The whole crop can so easily be jeopardized by diseases or pests becoming established during propagation. Give careful attention to all the containers, the propagating media, and your working methods. Make sure you take every possible precaution to prevent the introduction of any disease.

PROPAGATING HOUSE
Small propagating houses with fixed benches are not suitable for raising tomato plants and are uneconomic. An ordinary tomato house is quite suitable, provides better working conditions, and is easier of access. If plants you are growing are too few to fill a whole house you should consider dividing off with a polythene-film-covered wall the section they do fill. This will avoid having to heat the whole house in winter.

Seed is usually sown in compost, in seed boxes. They must be clean–either new or recently sterilized with steam or chemicals. The `John Innes’ soil mixes are ideal for seed boxes. Fill them to about 20 mm below the top. They should then be firmed and leveled before you add a thin layer
of compost that has been sieved through a 3-mm sieve. It is best to soak the box in a shallow tray of water until it is thoroughly wet before the seed is sown. The boxes should stand for a while after soaking to allow any excess water to drain off. Two to four hundred seeds are usually sown in each box. This gives a thin, even covering over the box. The seeds are covered with a 3- to 5-mm-thick layer of finely sieved (3 mm) soil.

The best temperature for germination is between 21 and 24 degrees Celsius. Germination will occur at much lower temperatures, but it is considerably slower. Higher temperatures increase the proportion of `rogue’ or `Jack’ plants produced by most varieties. It is usual to cover the seed boxes with glass and paper during germination and to turn the glass daily so as to remove any condensation. Properly prepared boxes should require no watering between the sowing of the seed and the emergence of the seedlings.

Any attempt to heat whole glasshouses to the ideal germination temperature is likely to prove uneconomic, but local tern-. Peratures can easily be regulated. A bench can be heated by electric soil-warming cables that are controlled by thermostats. Another method is to build a polythene-covered chamber in a shady area and install a tropicalized electric fan-heater and thermostat, with a tray of water to maintain a high humidity. This chamber should not be inside a glasshouse—excessively high temperatures could build up during quite brief periods of sunshine.

A high humidity at the time of their emergence helps the seedlings to shed the seed coats.

Seedlings should be pricked out when the cotyledons (seed leaves) are fully expanded and lying horizontally. In a temperature of 21 to 24°C the seedlings will be ready on the tenth day after sowing. Before pricking them out loosen them by sliding a small wooden label under the roots. Lift the plant by one of the cotyledons—not by the stem, which may cause damage. Only vigorous, healthy seedlings should be pricked out. Discard any plants whose cotyledons are caught in the seed coat. Do not attempt to remove the coat if it is stuck on to one of the expanded cotyledons. In doing so you may transfer tomato mosaic virus from the coat to the seedling.

The John Innes potting compost that contains double the rate of base fertilizer (JIP2) is strongly recommended. Extra phosphate may be required —many New Zealand loams are strongly phosphate fixing. The potting compost you use should be sterilized, preferably with steam. In steam
Sterilizing loam-based composts you must be careful not to cause manganese toxicity in the seedlings. This can generally be avoided by steaming the loam, peat, and sand separately before you mix them with the base fertilizer. The components can all be steamed at the same time and layered in the same batch, as long as they are not mixed. If the loam is very acid, liming it to about pH 5.5 to 6.0 before you steam it is recommended. The usual amount of lime should also be included with the John Innes base fertilizers.

Plants raised in boxes have proved to be greatly inferior to those that are raised in pots or soil blocks. The size of the pot or soil block is most important; 76-mm-diameter hexagonal soil blocks and 100-mm-square plastic pots have been found adequate.

Overseas research has shown that night temperatures of 16° to 17°C, with day ventilation at 21 °C, are best for raising tomato plants. In New Zealand, plants grown at these temperatures have performed well. They have become established rapidly and produced good early yields. At lower night temperatures (12° to 13°C) plants grow and bear fruit more slowly, but produce larger trusses. Plants that are raised in cold houses (minimum temperatures above 2° to 3°C) have trusses that are not much larger than those raised at 12° to 13°C but they do take much longer to propagate, establish more slowly, and their fruit is ready for picking very much later.

Tomato plants must have ample water while they are in the propagating stages, but it is equally important not to water them so much that its nutrients are leached out of the potting compost. Any attempt to produce `hard’ plants by restricting the water supply will result in small, dark-green plants which produce lower yields than softer plants that are grown with plenty of water. Watering daily is recommended in good weather; less frequently in dull weather.

To judge the amount of water to put into a plastic pot is difficult. You should turn out a few plants each time you water and check that the soil at the bottom of the pot is moist but not too wet. In heated glasshouses the young plants can be watered from overhead with a small-bore hosepipe fitted with a fine rose; there is no need to worry about wetting the leaves. Young seedlings in cold houses can be watered in the same way, but there may be less disease risk if larger plants are watered in their pots, with a small hose running slowly and keeping the foliage as dry as possible.

Watering and spraying are easier when the plants are standing on the floor of a glasshouse rather than on benches in a propagating house. The floor should be raked level and covered with black polythene. This prevents the plants from rooting down into the floor and helps to prevent the soil structure from being damaged during the propagation period.

Plants that are standing `pot thick’ in beds on the floor require the least labor for watering. They can be `stood out’ in this way immediately after being pricked out. They should be spaced out as soon as the leaves of adjacent plants begin to touch; there should be 15 cm between each plant and its neighbors.

Spacing out is necessary if short, stocky plants are to be produced. Overcrowding will result in tall, spindly plants with high first trusses. If they are standing pot thick in a large single bed in one section of the glasshouse, considerable labor will be needed to space them out.

While they are standing pot thick, plants should be in relatively small beds, close to their final situation. In the type of layout shown on p. 30 no plant has to be removed more than 1 m during the spacing-out operations. Rogue plants and any that are not up to standard should be discarded then. Pegs are needed at the corners of the plots to prevent plants from being knocked over by the hoses.

As a general rule, planting out early produces earlier and better yields than does late planting. However, if the temperature, light, or soil-moisture conditions are unfavorable, early planting will increase the risk of plants `bolting’ and of aborting flowers on the first truss. Growers who know from experience that bolting risks are low should plant out 6 weeks after sowing. If there is any risk of them bolting, the plants should be held in the propagating house until the first flower is visible. For winter plantings this will normally be about 8 weeks after sowing in heated propagating houses or 8 to 10 weeks in cold houses.

PLANTING

Planting methods vary, not only from one district to another but also within a single district. One point that has become evident in recent years is that a given area of ground has a certain potential yield. Plants that have adequate breathing space may not produce a greater yield per unit area but an increased yield per plant is likely. Each plant benefits from having more light and air and there are fewer to string and to trim. Also, the fruit tends to be larger. Our staff have settled on 0.28 m2 as the optimum area for a tomato plant. Other districts favor very slightly closer planting. In many areas the F1 hybrids are the most popular. Their extra vigor is wasted if they are planted too close.

Some growers prefer single rows 75 cm apart, with plants between 35 and 40 cm apart. Others prefer a double row and a wider walking path. The rows are usually about 60 cm apart and the walking path is about 90 cm wide. In some districts the glasshouse is planted lengthwise; in others crosswise planting is preferred. You would be well advised to discuss the subject with your local horticultural advisory officer.

Trickle irrigation in one form or another is becoming universal. If you lay out the harness before you begin planting the trickle nozzles will show you where to put the plants. There should be no more than 10 cm between the nozzle and the base of the plant. On soils which tend to pack it is a good idea to make a slight depression near each plant. This will check the run-off of the trickle feed. The plant should be a good deal deeper than it was in the soil in its container. This will cause a secondary root system to develop above the primary roots and give the plant greater feeding ability and greater stability. The soil in which the plants are set out should be neither cold nor unduly wet.

Plants are supported as they grows by gently twisting around them a length of binder twine that hangs from an overhead wire about 2 to 3 m above soil level. The plant is tied in a fairly loose reef knot below the second or third leaf from the ground. Always be careful in tying and twisting. Any damage to the plant, even a mild abrasion, can be a point of entry for grey mould (Botrytis cinerea). Laterals should be removed about once a week, beginning about 3 weeks after planting.

They readily bend and break off from a healthy plant. If this work is carried out under dry conditions there is less risk from botrytis. The same applies to unwanted foliage. As the leaves grow older and larger they shade one another and are less effective in manufacturing carbohydrates. Removing them improves the air circulation, which also reduces the risk of disease.

A sound general policy is to leave at least the top 1 m of foliage on the plant and to remove the rest. Trimming should be carried out even after the plants reach the wire. The training methods at this level vary. The inverted arch system was tried and found successful at Levin. A pamphlet describing it is available from your local MAF office. About 6 weeks before the crop is to be pulled out the plants may be stopped one leaf above the flowering truss. This encourages the upper trusses to swell, so that there is a minimum of unripe fruit at cropping time.

Too often training over the wire is done only when there is time for it. This is a pity—to neglect it is likely to significantly affect the yield.

WATERING AND FEEDING

When something goes wrong or is out of balance the grower must be able to recognize it quickly. He must also be able to determine the average daily needs of all his tomato plants. The local horticultural advisory officer (Master Gadener) is usually able to draw on his local knowledge and suggest a watering schedule suited to the particular crop, soil type, and growing season. This serves as a basis but should be adjusted from time to time, as necessary.

An evaporimeter provides a more accurate estimate of the daily require­ments. A simple and effective one was designed overseas. A round tray is made by slicing 10 cm off a 200-1 (44-gal) drum. A brass or copper point is welded on to the center (or pointing inward and downward from the top edge) to act as an indicator. The tray contains about 7.5 cm of water. It is checked daily and, when necessary, replenished to exactly the same level. The tray is painted inside and out with a white, anticorrosion pro­tective paint. A tray that is cut from a 200-1 drum is approximately 570 mm in diameter. It has a surface area of 2568 cm2, which is very close to the recommended area for a tomato plant (equivalent to one plant per 2510 cm2). Experiments have shown that there is a close correlation between the amount of water that evaporates from such an open water surface and the total water loss from a similar area of glasshouse soil plus plants. The evaporimeter is, therefore, a guide to the water loss from the whole glass-house.

It is advisable to average the loss from at least two evaporimeters in each glasshouse. They are best placed on or above the collarties, and in average conditions of temperature, sunlight, and air movement. They should be kept well away from ventilators and heating pipes, and out of any shadows.

Theoretically, the amount of water to be added to the evaporimeter each day should be equal to the amount that is needed by each of the plants to replace the water it has evaporated. In practice, there is usually a slight difference—solar radiation is not the only thing that affects the plants’ water uptake. The condition of the soil, its soluble-salts status, the type of heating system, and the health of the plants are some of the other things. The positioning of the evaporimeters, even when carefully done, may also introduce some error; however, it will be constant for the time of the year and the stage of the crop. Once determined and recorded, it can be used unaltered from season to season.

It is best expressed as a multiplication factor. Supposing that the evapori­meters need an average of 400 ml each day to keep their levels steady. Theoretically, the plants should also need 400 ml of water each through the trickle system. Reading the plants and the occasional soil check may indicate that not quite enough water is being applied      after a week a double watering may be needed to restore the soil moisture level. This double watering supplies an extra 400 ml, which represents the under‑watering of a week—therefore 400/7 = 57 ml more water per day should have been applied.

Instead of the 400 ml, 457 ml or 1.1 times the evaporimeter reading was required. This 1.1 multiplication factor should be noted down and used to convert all future evaporimeter readings. (A reading of 500 ml will require a 500 x 1.1 = 550-ml watering, etc.) The actual multiplication factor can run from 0.9 to 2.0 but is usually between 1.3 and 1.4.

With a uniform cropping plan and provided there are no drastic alter­ations to the glasshouse or in the situation of the evaporimeters, the multiplication factors, once recorded, can be used each season, again and again. A set of notes incorporating these factors should be kept in each glasshouse, somewhere near the container that is used to check the output of the trickle harness.

Remember that it will always be necessary to keep an eye on the develop­ment of the plants. The watering rate must be cross-checked from time to time, so you will need to develop the ability to `read’ your plants.

Most of the tomatoes grown in locally are watered and fed by `trickle irrigation’; one or two outlets near each plant provide it with water and dissolved nutrients. Most of the systems release very little water at each watering point (about 1.5 l/h) to make it possible to water as many plants as possible from a single tap. For instance, a B.S.P. standard 12.7-mm (1/2-in.) Tap with an output at ordinary mains pressure of, say, 2400 01 used at a drip rate of 1.5 1/h per plant will water 1600 plants at the same time.

There are several methods of watering through permeable plastics. Some commercial systems rely for their output control on small nozzles, where the water is forced through a screw thread. Lately, so-called `micro-tube’ systems have come into use. The trickle is gained by passing the water through short lengths (up to 60 cm) of very small-bore polythene tubing (0.875 mm). Microtube systems can be made quite easily at home and are cheaper than the traditional nozzle systems. They all distribute
Water through several large-bore (25 mm or so) plastic or rubber hoses that run the length of the glasshouse. They have smaller laterals (9 to 12 mm) that branch into one for each plant row and into which one or two nozzles or microtubes are inserted alongside each plant. Usually a water-fertilizer mixture is applied; it is rarely water alone. There are various ways of injecting the fertilizers into the irrigation water. Readily soluble fertilizers can be dissolved directly into a raised feeder tank. A strong fertilizer stock solution is usually made up by dissolving the fertilizer in hot water. This is stored in a container that has a diluter head to feed the solution into a stream of water passing through at a set rate. The diluter head and the container with the fertilizer are connected in line between the tap and the distribution system (usually called a `harness’).

To avoid any plant sitting continuously in a puddle, you should make sure that there is an outlet about 10 cm away from the base of each plant. It is advisable to make especially sure that the outlets of microtube harnesses are firmly in place; home-made wire staples are useful for this.

Trickle irrigation is a labor-saving device—it cannot completely replace hand watering and the application of fertilizers by hand without some detriment to the crops. Its main weakness is the lack of horizontal spread. On nearly all soil types, regardless of how much water is applied, there is a tendency for the moist zone under each outlet to grow smaller and for the soil between these areas to dry out. The roots of the plants thus become confined to a very small area. This forces them down deeper, below the level of sterilization, into soil which may be diseased. It also makes the plants very sensitive to any irregularities in the watering and feeding programmes—the buffering effect of the greater volume of soil is lost.

You must therefore try to maintain the area of the moist soil and of the plant roots.

The best ways of doing so are the occasional use of the hose and the use of low-trajectory sprinklers late in the season. These treatments should begin as soon as it is obvious that the area of soil that is kept damp by the trickle outlets is contracting. You can see this from the surface, but preferably during a period of settled, bright weather. You will need to repeat this observation every 4 to 6 weeks. Any watering should be either preceded by a dry side dressing of at least 25 g/m2 of sulphate of potash or followed by at least z 1 of strong (1 in 100 or 1 in 150) high-potash trickle feed. This prevents the plants having access to water with a low salts content, which may lead to ripening disorders.
An alternative and possibly more labor-saving way is to take each pair of trickle laterals and place one between the pair of plant rows and the other in the path. The water can then be spread by moving the outlets 10 to 15 cm at a time, applying about 1 of trickle solution to each new position before moving the outlets back again.

Late in the season, when all the fruit and leaves have been removed up as far as the wires, low-trajectory sprinklers can replace all the other watering methods. This mobilises the nutrients through the entire soil mass; evens out the spread of water and nutrients; and drawing the roots to the surface, allows them to ramify everywhere.

Experiments have shown that a relatively few formulas cover all the requirements, regardless of the locality or the season. The main differences lie in their strength (‘dilution’) and in the relationship between their potassium and nitrogen.

Magnesium also is supplied through the liquid feeding programmed, but the remaining major elements (calcium and phosphorus) cannot be efficiently supplied through a trickle system. They do not move freely through the soil and must therefore be applied as base dressings, dispersed through the soil by cultivation.

A simple code is used to express the potassium to nitrogen ratio of the various trickle feeds. The solutions can be bought as proprietary mixtures or made up from pure chemicals. The following table indicates the main types, with their constituents, their potassium to nitrogen ratio, and their code name.

Material	Quantity for 10 liters of water*	Approximate potassium to nitrogen ratio	Codename
Sulphate of potash	2kg	Potassium only	K
Nitrate of potash	2kg	3:1	2KN
Nitrate of potash Urea	2kg 400g	2:1	2KN
Nitrate of potash Urea	1.8kg 1.6kg	1:1	KN

*An average diluter bottle holds 101(about 21 gal).

Magnesium sulphate is usually added to the stock solution at the rate of 50 g/l. In many districts this has been enough to prevent any symptoms of magnesium deficiency in the crop. It is also the maximum amount the standard solutions will absorb without the salts recrystallising when the solution is kept in a cold place, such as an unheated glasshouse. If a higher magnesium content is needed the stock solution must be made weaker. Your local advisory officers will provide guidance on this point.

The chemicals that are used are crystalline (as opposed to pelleted or coated) potassium nitrate (13 percent N and 35 percent K), potassium sulphate (39 percent K), urea (46 percent N), and magnesium sulphate either as Epsom salts (10 to 12 percent MgO) or Kieserite (16 to 17 percent MgO).

Industrial-grade chemicals are preferable as they are easy to dissolve and do not leave any residue. Fertilizer-grade chemicals usually leave some impurities after dissolving. They must be removed by overnight settling or by filtering. Where necessary, a suitable dye (fluorescine, magenta, or disulphine blue) is added to keep a check on bottle contents. A stock solution is made from 6 g of the chosen dye in 1 of water, and 5 ml of this is added to each litre of the fertilizer solution.

Trials have shown that there is no need for any great variation in the chemical content of the trickle feeding solution. The season and the geographical area determine the most commonly required formula. Thus a KN solution is the main feed for all of the warmer areas. For the colder area, the main feed is a 2KN one, with a 3KN feed during adverse weather.

The dilution rate of the stock solution and the amount of trickle irrigation that is required are to some extent related. Together they form the tomato grower’s most difficult problem.

To induce proper development of their floral parts and fruit, tomatoes need some curb on their early growth. Their root development must be kept under control. Tomatoes should be planted in a rather dry soil. At first the plants are `ball watered’—only a small quantity (up to 0.25 1) of water per plant is applied, at intervals of from every second day to 1 week, depending on the seasonal conditions. The area of damp soil around each plant is very gradually extended and the roots are allowed to grow. The plants should grow slowly, with a relatively `hard’ appearance—especially when planted in autumn, winter, or early spring. Summer-planted crops can often be allowed to grow unrestricted.

At this stage it is important to watch the flowers. They should be well up on the head of the plant, open properly with a good yellow color, and be freely visible. Greenish flowers in tight bunches that do not open properly (`oat flowers’) or flowers hidden in a mass of lush foliage warn of later difficulties.

A glasshouse that has been flooded during crop changeover to wash out surplus fertilizers or in which a test has shown the nutrient levels to be low should be ball watered with a strong trickle solution (1 in 100 or 1 in 150, usually of a 2KN-feed).

When the watering programme or the evaporimeter readings call for more than 0.5 1 of water per application the soil under the nozzle will start to become leached. The roots will soon be drawing all their water from the leached area and ripening disorders will become a danger. From then onwards ordinary water must never be used. Always use a fertilizer solution (except when the water spread is being improved in a soil that is relatively high in soluble salts and pure water is applied after the nozzles have been shifted to their alternative positions).

During the rest of the season correct rates and dilutions are the key to successful tomato growing. Continue with a watering programmed based on a district schedule or on your evaporimeter readings, but corrected frequently after reading the plants and checking with a trowel the water spread in the soil. As the quantity being applied increases, the trickle solution is made weaker. A high concentration of salts in the soil water makes it more difficult for the roots to take it up. It is therefore growth limiting. A straight potassium feed at a 1 :100 dilution is the most growth-limiting feed that can safely be used; experience has shown that higher concentrations sometimes cause root damage. The weakest solution you use, late in the season, should be about 1 :350. After that, change to overall watering with hoses or sprinklers.

If the plant roots have become confined to the area under the trickle nozzles, weak solutions may quickly give rise to ripening disorders and (on lighter soils) even to nutrient deficiencies. There is little danger in prolonging the application of the stronger solutions as long as sufficient of them is being applied to allow some water to run away to drainage. A build up of soluble salts occurs from frequent applications of quantities so small that they wet the soil only to root depth and then evaporate away from the surface, leaving the salts behind. This eventually causes root damage.

Recent investigations* suggest that when it exceeds a certain concentration ammonia in solution becomes toxic to tomatoes. Urea in the soil breaks down to ammonia. High-nitrogen trickle feeds based on urea that are used at high concentrations may cause root damage. The con­centrations and formulations that have been suggested in this bulletin are believed to be safe, but should not be exceeded.
*By Dr R. White

WATER STRESS

There are some symptoms of water stress with which you will need to ecome familiar. They are to be found on the plant rather than on the fruit.
They often provide an early warning, before the fruit is damaged.

• Where the flower stem (up to 20 mm long) joins the `truss’ or `bunch’ stem there is a slight localized thickening called the `knuckle’ which provides a good guide to water stress. It should be of the same general color as the surrounding stems. If it is pale green or yellow in color, the plant is suffering from a lack of water which, if not corrected, will soon cause the flower to drop off at the knuckle.
• The shape of the main stem of a growing plant is another good guide. It should be of approximately the same thickness all the way up, but when a plant is under water stress the main stem becomes thin and stringy while over watering causes it to become fat and succulent, until it is full of rather loosely packed `pith’ tissue. When over watering continues until the plant roots are damaged the pith inside the stem collapses, causing `hollow stem’. This is easily felt from the outside. If it occurs the watering programmed needs to be corrected at once.
• Even slight over watering will eventually cause the plant tips to turn pale. They will go gradually from light green to yellow to almost white, although a network of fine veins will remain green. This effect is probably caused by poor root respiration interfering with the uptake of certain trace elements. It is usually fully reversible.

The quality of glasshouse tomatoes depends mainly on correct watering and feeding and on the absence of `ripening disorders’. Any other factors that influence the quality are usually varietal characteristics.

The effects of water stress and of an excess of soluble salts cannot very well be separated. All tomato soils are well supplied with minerals, and any drying out always causes a higher concentration of mineral salts, while watering dilutes them. The effects of drought are, therefore, usually combined with symptoms of an excess of salts. However, extremely high salts levels may affect plants even though the soil is quite moist.

High salts produce slow growth, wiry stems, and short internodes. The foliage is a shiny blue-green and the leaves are hard to remove. The flowers are small and bright yellow to almost orange. The fruit is small, very dark green (especially on top), and ripens through a mahogany color to an eventual bright red.

Low salts produce a plant that grows quickly and has a thick, brittle, pale green stem. Its leaves are large and break off easily, or soon fall off. The flowers are large and pale yellow to creamy. The fruit is large and soft. It ripens through whitish green to eventual pink, and usually exhibits disorders of the blotchy ripening type. Affected plants may be found even in apparently dry soils. In wet soils they `guttate’—they produce water droplets on the leaves at night and are wet by morning.

HEATING AND VENTILATING

Temperatures that are too high or too low will adversely affect plant growth and fruit production. Hence these two factors are usually treated under the one heading.

A heating system should be designed to provide an even temperature,
‘ thermostatically controlled, throughout the cropping space. Trials are going on to determine the optimum temperature for satisfactory plant growth, both vegetative and fruiting.

Experiments indicate that from planting to picking the day temperatures in unheated houses should be between 21 ° and 24°C. After picking has begun they should be reduced to between 18° and 21 °C. This should improve the late yields and reduce any humidity problems, but it can only be managed with careful ventilation and (usually) by planting in late summer, late winter, or early spring.

A heated house provides greater temperature control. From planting to picking 18°C at night and 20°C by day are recommended, with venti­lation starting at 21 °C. After picking has begun these temperatures can be lowered by about 3°C. An efficient heating system is therefore required and many growers have been dismayed by its cost. However, preliminary trial work has shown that the extra cost of the fuel is more than made up for by bigger yields at a time of higher prices.

In districts with a high relative humidity, an increase of one or two degrees in temperature will lower it and thus reduce the likelihood of disease.

Ventilation is the main temperature and humidity control. In a normal glasshouse there is ample exchange of air. Any urge to open it up early in the morning and close it at twilight should be ignored. When to open or close the ordinary shutter-type ventilators should depend on tem­peratures. Automatically operated ventilators are slowly growing in popularity. Which of a house’s vents are opened and how widely depend on the direction of the wind and on the inside temperatures.

Every glasshouse must have adequate provision for ventilation. The area of its ridge ventilators should equal at least one-sixth of the floor area. Side vents are desirable; they are much easier to install while the house is being constructed.

CULTIVATING

Each plant is trained as a single stem, up to a wire. When it is 30 cm high you should remove its two lowest leaves and tie a binder-twine reef knot below the third leaf. Make the loop large enough to allow the stem to swell. Tie the other end of the twine to the overhead wire with a bow knot, leaving a slight sag in the twine between the plant and the wire. As the plant grows, support it by twisting the twine around it.

From 3 weeks after planting remove all the laterals before they reach 10 cm in length. If they grow too big they waste plant energy and the large wounds they leave when they are removed provide an entry for diseases.

When the fruit on the second truss is of marble size, remove all the leaves below the bottom truss. Snap them cleanly off at the main stem. This helps to keep the base of the stem dry and disease free. Laterals snap off more easily when the plants are turgid.

After planting out, a light overhead damping with water on sunny days will help reduce moisture stress. In warm weather more than one damping per day may be needed. On sunny winter days damping down is sometimes used to avoid watering if bad weather is forecast within the next 36 hours. Such watering may cause the plant to grow too quickly during the bad weather and lead to a deterioration in its fruit quality.

Damp down no later than 2 p.m. in sunny weather and never in bad weather. The leaves must be dry before sunset; diseases attack leaves that are wet at night.

Overhead damping that is sufficiently forceful to shake the flowers also helps the natural setting of the fruit. If pollen drops out (`flies’) from the flower when it is shaken, the weather is warm enough for natural setting and damping down will help. If the pollen does not fly, damping down will not help.

Sprays may be used in winter to promote adequate fruit setting and swelling. As they open, the flower trusses are sprayed with a fruit-setting solution that is diluted according to local conditions. The more liquid you apply, the weaker the solution can be.

A fungicide is added to the dilute solution to stop botrytis disease from growing on the dead petals and spreading from them to destroy the young fruit. Check on fungicide materials with your local MAF advisory officer.

A truss is sprayed when there is an open flower on it. Some growers spray weekly, others every 10 days. A very short burst into the flowers may be enough. If the plant head is in the line of fire, use your gloved hand to protect it from the spray—otherwise it may suffer hormone damage.
If a nipple or a spike develops at the blossom end of the fruit (opposite the fruit stalk) your spraying has been too vigorous and prolonged.

The classical symptoms of hormone damage (narrowness and veins that run parallel) may develop in young leaves that get a good dose of fruit-setting spray. This can be confused with hormone-weedkiller damage, but mild and scattered cases at the start of the fruit-set season are probably caused by the fruit-setting spray. They do not affect the fruit crop.

When shaking the flower causes the pollen to fly, the weather is warm enough for natural setting and hormones are not required. In marginal conditions, pollen is most likely to fly between 10 a.m. and 3 p.m., while the house is warmest. Tapping the wires and overhead damping both promote natural setting.

After planting, a 3-cm-thick mulch of untreated sawdust is sometimes spread over the paths. Don’t use black, partly rotted sawdust (it releases ammonia gas which burns the leaves) or treated sawdust (the chemicals in it damage the plants).

The sawdust mulch is pleasant to work on and by reflection increases the light in the glasshouse. It rots slowly during the season and, when the crop comes out, is worked into the ground to add to the organic-matter reserves. It does not upset the soil’s nitrogen balance when it is used in this way.

HARVESTING

There are almost as many ways of picking and packing glasshouse tomatoes as there are growers of them. A great many ways are adaptations to suit a particular set of circumstances. There is therefore no `best’ method, but the following recommendations should ensure the highest possible quality.

Tomatoes should be picked as early as possible in the morning. The plants are then well supplied internally with water and the tissues are brittle enough to allow easy picking (even of some new varieties that have rather strong vascular strands). The fruit will also be well supplied with water and at its firmest. It will thus be better able to stand some water loss by transpiration during transit. It should not have been exposed to any sunlight and will still be as cool as (or cooler than) the glasshouse air, allowing it to be graded, packed, and sent away as cool as possible.

At sunrise in most glasshouses condensation forms quickly on the fruit. Ventilators should be opened early to prevent this, otherwise the fruit becomes too wet for picking and must be left until late in the morning. By then it will have become quite warm and this heat will have to be removed if any loss of quality is to be avoided.

Precooling is a highly effective way of overcoming this problem, of preparing the fruit for transport, and of ensuring that it arrives in good condition. Quite a small coolroom can cope with the daily output of the average property. The refrigeration plant should be rather powerful, so that it extracts the heat from the fruit quickly. Adequate air movement is also essential and a fan-assisted circulation system must be installed. Adequate air channels must be left between the stacks of fruit. Although precooling should allow you to pick the fruit at any time of day, in practice early-morning picking is still desirable because it is easier and the fruit is firm. To avoid problems with condensation, the fruit should be properly packed and the boxes closed before they are put into the coolroom and stored until they are to be sold.

Tomatoes are also held in cool storage over weekends or when marketing would be inconvenient. According to the `Handbook on the storage of fruits and vegetables’*, mature tomatoes can be cool stored after being harvested while they are green or partially colored. The purpose is to control the rate of ripening. At 10°C the rate of color change and the development of such disorders as uneven coloring, pitting, breakdown, and poor flavors are much reduced. At a temperature of 13°C, recom­mended for slow ripening, most varieties retain their good condition for 2 to 6 weeks and change color very slowly. At 16°C the rate of color change increases quite sharply; above 21’C the rate of maturation and other changes increases still further. Tomatoes held at 18°C change color rapidly, without excessive softening. Temperatures of 21°C or above induce rapid ripening and loss of quality. Fully ripe tomatoes can be stored for a short while at 10°C. In some experiments they have stored satis­factorily in 0°C but softening occurs at 2°C. Thus, it is usually risky to store ripe tomatoes for more than a few days.

The time for this is determined largely by marketing conditions. Tomatoes can be picked at any stage from the mature green to the fully ripe—how long they are to be held after picking will decide the issue. The final quality of fruit picked at various stages of ripeness furnishes very little basis for choice—provided it is well grown and handled. Increasing numbers of glasshouse growers aim for heavier pickings during periods of high demand and lighter pickings during market holidays when the demand is low. This is most commonly brought about by heating. The minimum temperature is set at 16°C or higher, which causes accelerated fruit develop­ment. (Lowering the temperature to a minimum of 10°C has the opposite effect, but temperatures below this should not be used as they may cause troubles.)

Most tomato varieties are best picked by placing the index finger on the `knuckle’ of the fruit stem, grasping the fruit between the other fingers and the thumb (take care not to dig your nails or fingertips in), and twisting the fruit upwards. A large proportion of the fruit from plants that are well supplied with moisture will retain the calyx when it is picked in this way. In times of high prices, especially in the South Island, the demand is for
*Canadian Department of Agriculture, Research Branch publication No. 1260.

Tomatoes with the calices on. Special emphasis is placed on large, starry, bright green calices. In volume-fill packs this practice often leads to damage from stem punctures that occur both in transit and in the shop. It is arguable whether a grower who produces out-of-season tomatoes in the high-quality grades should not go the whole way and use a tray pack to take maximum advantage of the attractive calices that many of the newer varieties have.

The grading equipment should be well padded—fruit should not drop on to any unpadded surface. Tomatoes often carry beads of gum from stem ends and glandular secretions which rub off on the felt linings of graders, grow hard, and damage following fruit as it passes over the grader. Any felt linings should therefore be cleaned frequently. The time and energy this takes should be more than repaid by the usefulness of such a liner, which helps to wipe off any dust and spray deposits.

Grading Standards
In November 1972,  the grading of standard red-strain tomatoes. They represent guidelines only and should not be regarded as mandatory:

1. Scope—establishes minimum requirements for `first quality’ and `second quality’ tomatoes at the point of first sale.
2. Definitions

Clean—free from dirt, dust, insect stains, or other foreign substances and materials.
Colored—the surface of each tomato shows a definite change of color from matured green to red. Condition
Cloud (blotchy ripening)—patches of tissue of no definite pattern which fail to ripen normally.
Greening—a hard green area surrounding the stalk.
Hard core—a hard or solid area surrounding the core. Matured—fully developed, or having a degree of ripeness that will ensure the completion of the ripening process after harvesting.
Matured green—the surface is still green, the contents of the seed cavities have developed a jellied consistency, and the seeds are fully developed.
Red—the surface is colored uniformly red.
Damage—any defect or injury which materially affects the appearance or storage quality.
Serious damage—surface blemishes of an aggregate area exceeding 15 percent of the aggregate surface area of the tomatoes in the lot, or any deformities as serious as to cause a loss of over 20 percent of the lot in the ordinary process of preparation for use.
Disease—any unhealthy condition caused by any fungus, bacterium, virus, pest, or other cause, and including any fungus, bacterium, virus, or pest.
Smooth—round types are not noticeably ridged, indented, or other-wise misshapen; other types are not, for the variety, excessively ridged, indented, or otherwise misshapen.
Similar varietal characteristics—the tomatoes in any one lot are of the same type and color.
Diameter—the greatest width, measured in a line at right angles to the longest section.

3. Sizes—there shall be four sizes only:

(a)large—exceeding 65 mm in diameter,
(b) Medium—not larger than 65 mm in diameter nor smaller than 45 mm in diameter,
(c) small—not larger than 45 mm in diameter nor smaller than 25 mm in diameter, and
(d)smallest (cocktail)—under 25 mm in diameter.

4. Grades
First quality tomatoes—shall be clean; of similar varietal charac­teristics; mature, but not over-ripe or soft; well formed, according to variety; and smooth and free from diseases, damage, and decay. They shall also be free from greening, hard core, and growth cracks. They may be red, colored, or matured green.
Second quality tomatoes—shall be of similar varietal characteristics, mature, and moderately well formed. They shall be clean and free from decay and disease, cuts, sun scald, and any serious damage. They shall be reasonably free from greening, hard core, and cloud.
Tolerance—in each container not more than 5 percent shall be below the requirements specified for the particular grade.

5. Unclassified—tomatoes which have not been classified: The term `unclassified’ is not a grade, but is a designation to show that no grade has been applied to the lot.

6. Labelling—cases containing tomatoes should be labelled and all labels should provide windows to allow for separate recording of grade, size, colour, and market line number.

END-OF-SEASON HYGIENE

The following program has been adopted by the Horticultural Research Centre:

• Keep the crop green by watering it until it is ready to pull out. Dead, dry, crumbly leaves are much more difficult to collect and remove than are green leaves.
• Cut stems and strings about 30 cm above ground level. (The stems serve as a handle later on, when you are forking out the roots.)
• Remove the tops. Make a good, clean job of cutting through both tops and strings, so that the wires are left clean and free of debris. Disposing
  of the tops is a problem—they are probably best carted off to the nearest public tip.
• Sweep the glasshouse floor with a yard broom. Gather up all the brokenleaves and rubbish. This should be fairly easy as the soil is not disturbed until the roots are pulled out.
• Wash down the inside and floor of the house with 1:50 formalin solution. A bucket diluter and high-pressure hose make this job easy.The formalin will kill most pests and disease organisms. Close up the house afterwards and leave it overnight.
• Fork out the tomato roots, getting as much of them out of the ground as possible.

This program was designed to reduce the risk of pests and diseases being carried over from one crop to the next. By the end of a season tomato mosaic virus is usually infecting all the tomatoes in glass-houses. It is not controlled by chemical soil-sterilisation–the smaller the quantity of infected residue there is lying around after a crop, the less risk there is of a disease carryover to the next crop. Sweeping up leaf debris and forking out the roots are particularly important steps. Separating the two jobs reduces the risk of infected debris being buried in the soil.

Pests and the spores of such diseases as botrytis and leaf mould on a glasshouse structure and on the surface of its soil are killed by the formalin wash down which precedes the forking out of the roots. These pests or diseases might otherwise be buried in the soil during the removal of the
roots and might be protected from the soil sterilants by inadequate sterilisation.

SOIL STERILISATION

Sterilising glasshouse soils to kill or inhibit pathogenic organisms is an essential step in successful tomato growing. For the first one or two seasons you may achieve success without sterilisation, but inevitably fungous diseases and probably such pests as eelworm will establish them-selves. Unless they are checked they will continue to develop until crop yields are reduced. Some will cause the death of plants at any stage of their growth.

Heat is undoubtedly the most efficient means of sterilising soil. In tomato glasshouses it is usually applied as steam. Unfortunately this requires a special steam generator which, with its ancillary equipment, is expensive. The usefulness of steam lies in the fact that it will control all the pests and diseases and most of the weed seeds in an area that is efficiently treated.

There are various means of getting the steam into the soil—grids, steam ploughs, and the `Hoddeson pipe system’ are the main ones. Whatever the system, it should destroy any pathogenic organisms while damaging as little as possible those that are beneficial. At 82°C most pathogens are destroyed but some (notably tobacco mosaic virus) are resistant. Where this is a problem the soil temperature should be raised to as near 100°C as possible. The chart below shows the thermal death point of various organisms.

Several chemicals can be used to sterilise soil. Formalin is an excellent fungicide but does not control eelworm, viruses, or weed seeds. Also it is messy to apply and requires a considerable volume of water if it is to penetrate the soil.

Chloropicrin is the most commonly used material. It gives good control of most pathogens, but does not readily penetrate undecomposed plant material. For this reason, it is not satisfactory on its own where eelworm has been a problem. Also, it has no effect on virus diseases.

DD gives adequate control of eelworm and is frequently used with chloropicrin to control most soil-borne pathogens. Methyl bromide gives excellent control of weed seeds and of eelworm but indifferent control of fungous diseases. Granular chemicals are available and have proved effective, provided they are used strictly according to the directions.

Dosage rates and methods of application vary with the chemical. Your nearest horticultural advisory officer will advise you as to the most suitable material and how to apply it. There are however a few basic points to observe for any treatment to be effective :

• The soil must be well cultivated before being treated, and all possible plant debris from previous crops must be removed.
• The soil should be moist enough and fine enough to hold together when it is compressed in the hand.
• The soil temperature should be at least 14°C and preferably higher when a chemical is being used.
• Allow adequate time after the treatment for the chemicals to disperse ; 3 to 4 weeks in most cases.
• After the soil has been treated do not cultivate it below the depth to which it was sterilised.
• Be careful not to reinfect any soil that has been treated.