Waking up in a pool of sweat can feel alarming. And even though lots of people sweat more overnight, it’s a sign that things may not be working as they should: the body’s core temperature typically decreases slightly during sleep.
But a variety of medical and lifestyle factors can signal to the brain that it’s time to start sweating, leading to scorching-hot wakeups. We asked experts how to figure out what’s leading to those sweat-drenched sheets, and what to do about it.
It could be a medical issue
Sweating at night can indicate that something is going on health-wise, says Dr. Aarthi Ram, a sleep medicine specialist at Houston Methodist. You could be going through menopause or have an abnormal thyroid or a neurological disorder—or even an infection like tuberculosis, malaria, or typhoid fever. “That’s why it’s important to go over travel history with your doctor,” she says. In some cases, night sweats can manifest in people with cancer, but that’s just one of numerous possibilities, she says.
Another possibility is obstructive sleep apnea. Findings from an Icelandic study of people with sleep apnea have found that people with the condition experience night sweats at a rate three times higher than the general population. “Anecdotally, I’ve had a few patients who have seen their ob-gyn and primary care provider, and they come to see me and they’re like, ‘No one can figure out why I have these night sweats,’” Ram says. “We do a sleep study, and they end up having sleep apnea.” Treatment, she adds—like wearing a CPAP mask—greatly improves their nighttime sweats.
So when is it time to see a doctor? “If you’re waking up drenched in sweat nightly, and it’s causing a significant disruption in your sleep or functional impairment, that’s usually a good indication,” Ram says. Expect your doctor to take a detailed history and run some basic labs.
Your medication might be to blame
Lots of common prescriptions can cause people to heat up at night, says Dr. Shoshana Ungerleider, an internal medicine physician who hosts the TED Health podcast. Among them: antidepressants, hormone therapy, diabetes medications, steroids, and beta blockers. “If you’re concerned a new medication is leading to your sweating at night, think about asking your doctor about timing or if the dosage could be changed,” she suggests. Sometimes, small adjustments can lead to better sleep.
If you enjoy a nice little bedtime snack that happens to be, say, in the jalapeño family, reconsider. Consuming spicy foods before going to sleep can trigger sweating. Alcohol and caffeine are also common culprits. “You definitely want to avoid alcohol before bedtime,” Ram says. “It can change your sleep architecture and cause night sweats.” It’s best to cut yourself off a few hours before bedtime.
Or you’re stressed
Stress and anxiety can trigger the fight-or-flight response—a surge in sympathetic nervous system activity—even when you’re asleep. “You can absolutely wake up drenched in sweat because you’re worried about things,” Ram says.
That’s why it’s worth trying to relax for an hour or so before going to bed. Dr. Glynis Ablon, a dermatologist and founder of the Ablon Skin Institute & Research Center in Manhattan Beach, Calif., advises her patients to adopt habits like meditating or taking a bath with Epsom salts, which she enjoys every evening. “Make your environment as relaxing and non-stress as possible,” she says. That might include putting your phone in another room, hanging up blackout curtains to block annoying light, and playing calming sounds on a white noise machine.
Your bedding could be heating you up
Bedding choices play a big role in sweaty sleep.
The most breathable fibers are the natural ones, notes Parima Ijaz, a textile expert and founder of the bedding brand Pure Parima: “Cotton, linen, hemp, and bamboo all allow air to pass through easily, helping cool the skin,” she says. Each one, however, has pros and cons; linen and hemp, for example, are prone to wrinkling and have a coarse texture that not everyone will like. Experiment to figure out what you find most comfortable. And if possible, go with a Percale weave. That’s a construction style that “allows for more air to pass through,” Ijaz says. It also has a lighter weight and crisper feel than other styles.
If you want to layer up, look for a blanket or comforter that’s lightweight, breathable, and made out of natural fabrics, like a down alternative comforter made out of cotton. (Down is an insulating fiber that traps heat, which is why alternative fills are best for hot sleepers, Ijaz says.) Avoid wool and fleece, which are too good at keeping you warm. The same goes for synthetic materials like polyester, microfiber, and acrylic.
If new bedding isn’t in your budget, get creative, advises Terry Cralle, a registered nurse and clinical sleep educator near Washington, D.C. You could put your top sheet in the fridge or even the freezer for about half an hour before you go to bed. How’s that for a cool pathway to less sweating? “I thought it was so clever,” she recalls of the first time someone told her about the trick—and it works.
It might be time to replace your mattress
When people consider potential mattresses, their attention often centers on whether it’s soft or firm. But breathability matters, too, Ram says—it determines how much airflow will circulate. “Sometimes memory foam mattresses tend to be a little more dense, and they can trap heat,” she adds. “Innerspring mattresses promote more airflow because of the empty space between the coils.”
Some mattresses and mattress toppers are infused with cooling material—like temperature-regulating gel beads and moisture-wicking fabric covers—and can elevate the sleeping experience. You could also consider technology like the BedJet, which blows cool air under the sheets, or a Chilipad system, which can ensure your bed stays as low as 60°F. “When I see people come in who are miserable and hot, they often haven’t looked at these new products in years,” Cralle says. “There are so many solutions and options for people out there, and it comes back to, do you value your sleep?”
Or you need new pajamas
If you’re a hot sleeper, avoid wearing anything made out of synthetic fabrics—including, perhaps counterintuitively, satin nightwear. That’s because the fabric, while pleasant to touch, isn’t breathable, Ijaz says. Polyester and nylon tend to trap heat, too. Instead, opt for pajamas made out of natural fabrics such as cotton, linen, and hemp, she suggests. Sweaty people might also find that sleeping in the buff is the coolest option.
Your thermostat might be set too high
The ideal temperature for sleeping typically ranges from 60 to 67°F, Cralle says. If you need help getting there, turn on the AC or enlist some fans—she knows people who set up a few around their bedroom. Fans work well for air circulation and “help evaporate moisture without necessarily waking you up,” she says. Another idea: Put a bowl of ice in front of the fan right before you go to bed, and enjoy an extra-cool breeze, Cralle suggests. It’s just one more way to ensure you don’t lose sleep over yet another sweaty night.
Anthony Andrews, a 34-year-old training manager at a bank in London, had been candid from the very beginning, when he directed Jessica Lockett, an art director, to his Instagram profile, @ibdlife. They had matched on Hinge in January 2020, and he wanted to ensure that she understood what life with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and an ostomy bag meant before they got too involved. “Do you still like what you see?” he messaged. Back then, Andrews had been suffering with ulcerative colitis (UC) for 11 years and was days away from a surgery that would require him to wear a bag for the rest of his life. Lockett, intrigued and compassionate, scrolled through his posts, learning quickly exactly what that meant.
“A lot of us [IBD patients] will probably feel like they can’t necessarily open up, but I would openly tell people,” says Andrews, joking that it was his “unique sales pitch” on dating apps. Most women were supportive, he says, but “there were a number of times when people were just like, ‘What’s that? That sounds disgusting. I don’t really want to deal with that.’”
Lockett was different. She messaged back, “Of course I’m still interested.” That put him at ease before they even went on their first date.
IBD, which includes UC and Crohn’s disease, is an incurable autoimmune disease that affects the digestive system. It brings unpredictable symptoms like diarrhea (sometimes with blood), abdominal pain, fatigue, and weight loss—and often first shows up just as young adults are hitting the dating scene, which can make it even more daunting.
Treatments range from nutrition support and medications to more extreme procedures such as ostomy surgery, which typically involves creating an opening in the abdomen, known as a stoma, to allow waste to exit directly from the intestines into a bag outside the body. Surgeries are typically necessary when parts of the digestive system are diseased or damaged and need to be bypassed or removed. With or without surgery, IBD can alter body image and self-esteem, adding a layer of complexity to personal relationships, which can be hard enough without the added pressure of managing a stigmatized disease.
“Everybody’s got challenges, but it feels that IBD can be more challenging on sexuality and intimacy because bloody diarrhea is typically not sexy,” says Marci Reiss, a licensed clinical social worker and the founder and president of the IBD Support Foundation, based in Los Angeles.
But there are many patients, advocates, and medical experts who say the disease can also just be part of your regular life, dating included. From figuring out the right time and way to share your IBD status, to smart planning for outings and sex, here are some tips to help make dating more comfortable for everyone involved.
Everyone with IBD feels differently about opening up about their condition. Some people, like Andrews, may want to get it out of the way before even meeting someone face-to-face. Others may take months to broach the topic.
“It becomes so difficult for people to share, because it’s their deepest pain,” says Reiss. “People think to themselves, ‘Am I lovable with this?’”
Sara Levitt (Instagram @saralevs) posing during a personal photoshoot celebrating World IBD Awareness Day on May 19th 2024, capturing words of affirmation.Yvon Steinthal (Instagram @yspamplemoose)
Montreal-based content creator and model Sara Levitt, 29, would sometimes wait three or four months before sharing her medical condition with guys she dated, requiring stealthy ways to conceal her ostomy bag in the bedroom. To divert their attention, “I would just tell them, ‘I have Crohn’s disease, I have scars…I’m self conscious,’” says Levitt. This allowed her to tuck the bag under a sweater or tank top and keep her arm strategically wrapped around her waist. However, covering it up came with a price. “I would feel constricted and stressed out…and it held me back from developing emotional connections.”
Last year, however, she went public about her IBD, ostomy, and proctectomy (in which the diseased rectum and anus are removed and sewn closed permanently), a.k.a. “Barbie Butt” surgery—so-called by patients themselves because it reminds them of a doll’s bottom. Levitt, who had her first surgery at 13 and is known as “The Bag Bish” on Instagram, spent years learning how to accept her condition and turning it into a blessing. In January, she became the first “ostomate” featured in the monthly men’s magazine MAXIM Australia. “I just reached a point where I was mentally and physically exhausted from hiding the bag, and I realized that I’m living the life I’m living because of it.”
Prepare your elevator pitch
Even before you decide to share, it’s helpful to have a short “elevator pitch” ready, says Laurie Keefer, a gastropsychologist and professor of medicine at Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai Health System in New York City. One of her biggest pieces of advice: “Don’t make it a bigger deal than it has to be.” Her script goes something like this: “I have X condition; I was diagnosed X years ago; this is how it’s treated (medication and/or surgery), and this is how it affects me.” The last point, for example, may be a simple statement about needing to avoid certain foods or alcohol, or the possibility that you might need to get up suddenly to use the bathroom.
Keefer wants her patients to be able to deliver this pitch in their sleep, so they can stop being anxious about it. “Most people, if they don’t have a chronic GI disease, are pretty clueless about what the digestive tract does or is. So for better or for worse, you can use that to your advantage,” says Keefer. Don’t catastrophize every reveal. “Even when you tell people you have an ostomy, they’re like ‘Oh, OK, my grandma had one of those.’ It doesn’t occur to them that that means you’re going to the bathroom outside of your body…most people don’t have an appreciation enough of anatomy and physiology that they even really fully understand what you’re saying.”
Scout the menu and restroom facilities before a date
Before heading out on a date, do a little recon on the venue. Check out the menu online to make sure there are options that work for you. Investigate the restroom situation. Patients and experts agree that having a plan can ease any nerves and let you focus on enjoying the date.
With an invisible disability like IBD, it also helps to know your rights in public and private places. The Restroom Access Act, or “Ally’s Law,” (named after Allyson Bain, a Crohn’s patient from Illinois, who was 14 when she was denied access to a restroom in a department store, leading to a humiliating accident) has been passed in 17 states in the U.S., giving you the right to access a business’s private restroom if you ask. The non-profit organization Girls With Guts has made exercising this right even easier, with its “I Gotta Go” cards. You can easily replicate these at home; they’re super handy to discreetly communicate your urgency to skip the line or ask for restroom access where it’s usually off-limits.
Talk to your GI doctor and other sexual health specialists
Certain IBD symptoms, including pain during sex, leakage, and fistulas (an unusual tunnel between organs, which can get infected) may significantly affect your love life. Regardless of gender or sexuality, surgeries can disrupt or halt certain sexual activities, such as making anal penetration impossible, which can be frustrating to some people.
Your IBD team can point you to specialists like OB-GYNs, urologists, pelvic floor therapists, and even sexual therapists such as psychologists and psychotherapists who understand and can support you. Plenty of people with IBD have vibrant, loving, and intimate relationships.
“There is a connection between the physical and the psychological and vice versa. But sometimes it’s just physical because of all the damage that has been done to the nerves in that area,” says Dr. Aline Charabaty, director of the Inflammatory Bowel Disease Center at Sibley Memorial Hospital in Washington, D.C. Even your GI doctor may hesitate to discuss sensitive topics like emotional and sexual health, says Charabaty, but there should be questions like: How is this disease affecting your emotional health? How is it affecting your sexual health? Are you dating or in a relationship? If that’s not happening, bring it up yourself and ask for referrals.
A heads-up on contraception: If you’re using pills and your IBD causes you to vomit or have severe diarrhea, they might not work as well. Also, some symptoms of STIs can look a lot like IBD flare-ups, so if something feels off, it’s smart to check in at a sexual health clinic. And remember, condoms are your go-to for protecting against STIs while you navigate everything else.
Anticipate the unexpected during intimacy
Navigating intimacy with IBD can be daunting, but there are effective ways to manage leakage and incontinence without ruining a romantic mood. Cherabaty says medications such as Imodium can help patients gain better control over bowel movements, particularly before engaging in sexual activities. Those experiencing ongoing symptoms of diarrhea or incontinence despite managing their disease may need additional strategies: pelvic physical therapy for strength, fiber supplements to firm up stools, or bile acid sequestrants like cholestyramine for the bile acid diarrhea often seen in Crohn’s patients. Some of Cherabaty’s patients who engage in anal sex have reported success using enemas beforehand to ensure cleanliness and comfort. Integrating the job of changing an ostomy bag into your “freshening up” routine can also help manage concerns, allowing you to feel more secure and relaxed.
Also remember that sometimes accidents happen. How you and your date or partner respond to them could say a lot about the strength and understanding in your relationship. Alicia Aiello, 34, the president of Philadelphia-based Girls With Guts, recalls an embarrassing incident with her first serious girlfriend. “She kicked the ostomy bag off by accident in a hotel room with white sheets. And [the waste] went everywhere. It was all over her. It was all over me. It was one of the most mortifying experiences of my life, and I was only 20 then,” she recalls. Thankfully, Aiello and her girlfriend at the time had been dating long enough that they were able to take a pause and a deep breath before assessing the situation and cleaning up as best they could. (And avoid paying a $400 cleaning fee from the hotel.) “That was a positive moment where that was probably the worst thing that could have happened to me while dating someone. And while it was momentarily mortifying, looking back now, I can laugh about it.”
Dr. Neilanjan Nandi, a gastroenterologist and associate professor of clinical medicine at the University of Pennsylvania’s Penn Presbyterian Medical Center, actively supports his IBD patients in gaining sexual confidence. “Feeling sexy is a mind game,” he explains, emphasizing the importance of open communication and helpful products. For those with an ostomy, for example, stylish stoma pouch covers and support belts, or specialized lingerie, such as high-waisted crotchless panties, can make intimacy more comfortable. If odor is a concern, oral ostomy deodorizer pills can be helpful, too.
Nandi also recommends letting your partner get up close and personal with your stoma, perhaps involving them in changing the ostomy bag, or making it part of a shared shower, a tip he got from one of his patients. “You have the water, you can get hot and steamy. You can play with the stoma; you can explore it together,” he says. “If there’s an accident, it’s a comfortable place to wash it off. I know that sounds crazy if you’re new to this, or even if you’re not, but it can make it a big difference.” This openness can not only boost your confidence, but deepens your connection, making intimate moments feel more natural and spontaneous.
Anthony Andrews and Jessica Lockett celebrate their engagement.Anthony Andrews and Jessica Lockett
Four years have now elapsed since Andrews met Lockett on Hinge—four years that included an amazing first date at a wine bar in London’s Borough Market, his ostomy surgery, and moving in together during the pandemic. Now, the two are planning to wed on the fifth anniversary of the day they met. Lockett has held his hand and cried with him in the hospital, cleaned up a messy stoma mishap, and walked around with an ostomy bag herself to understand what it’s like. Andrews admits that what started as casually scrolling the apps to distract himself from his surgery has blossomed into a love more real than he could have ever imagined. “She has been so unbelievably supportive…she’s my best friend,” says Andrews. To others still looking, he says, “Don’t lose hope.”
Cancer isn’t just emotionally and physically taxing: It can take a steep financial toll on patients, caregivers, and families.
In fact, two years after a diagnosis, adults with cancer are 71% more likely to experience financial problems than those without a cancer diagnosis, according to January 2022 research in the Journal of Clinical Oncology. This type of financial hardship due to medical bills is sometimes referred to as financial toxicity, or when out-of-pocket medical costs not covered by health insurance cause money problems for a patient.
Cancer care costs vary widely by the type of disease and the stage at which it’s diagnosed. Insurance claims for an initial kidney cancer diagnosis average about $39,500 annually, according to July 2020 research in Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers, & Prevention. For end-of-life kidney cancer care, that number can stretch to an average of $92,300 a year, with an additional $11,400 for prescription medications.
If you have insurance, you aren’t responsible for all of that, but depending on your coverage, you can still owe thousands. Some people with cancer say they spend more than 20% of their annual income on medical care, according to the National Cancer Institute (NCI).
Joe Gillette, 58, of Brooklyn, N.Y., is intimately familiar with these statistics. A long-time American Cancer Society (ACS) volunteer, he was shocked when he received his own diagnosis, on August 5, 2022, his 57th birthday: stage 4 kidney cancer that had spread to his lungs, stomach, and brain.
Gillette’s treatment plan called for brain surgery first, which would require a week’s hospital stay, then radiation and immunotherapy. He planned to be out of his job as an attorney for a week. Due to complications, he ended up in a coma for two and a half months, and his office put him on disability leave. There was a six-month wait for the payments to kick in.
“Thankfully with my wife working, we were able to barely cover the mortgage,” he says. “We had some savings we had to go through.” Though his wife is sensitive to the cold, “she learned not to turn on the heat in the house unless it was truly freezing,” Gillette adds. “The grocery bill was bare necessities, which was not how I had ever lived.”
The disability payments amount to much less money than Gillette made when he was working. But he feels more secure now than during those six precarious months. “We treaded water for that time period,” he says.
Others may have to shift finances around more dramatically. “They may delay treatment because they don’t have the funds to get to treatment or a second opinion,” says licensed clinical social worker Vilmarie Rodriguez, vice president of patient assistance and community engagement at the cancer support organization CancerCare. “Financial toxicity reduces quality of life, because [patients are] constantly worrying about medical bills or struggling to pay rent or mortgage or put food on the table. Their employment gets affected because they’re constantly going to treatment. All of this combined leads to worsening health outcomes.”
Of course, your financial situation before cancer is a large predictor of how you may weather that storm, as is the type of cancer you’re diagnosed with, how advanced it is, and the treatment it requires. But regardless of your unique scenario, the following tips can help you prevent or lessen the effects of financial toxicity during cancer treatment.
Speak with a social worker or patient navigator
Many health-care facilities have social workers or knowledgable people known as patient navigators on their oncology teams who can help you from many angles: emotional, physical, and financial. But you might not know about these resources unless you ask what’s available. “The worst they can tell you is, ‘No, we don’t have that,’” Rodriguez says.
Hospital social workers in particular are familiar with the money-saving options you might have, including prescription assistance plans, transportation assistance, and bill negotiation or payment plans. “They do an outstanding job of being the patient advocate and looking out for patients in general,” says Alan Klein, chief development officer of the HealthWell Foundation, a non-profit that assists the underinsured by offering help with medication copays, insurance premiums, deductibles, and other out-of-pocket expenses, including for behavioral health care.
Once you’ve connected with a social worker or patient navigator—or even a trusted doctor or nurse—try to learn as much as you can about the financial load ahead. “Patients should always ask the cost up front,” Rodriguez says.
For example, your treatment plan might change without your knowledge to include a doctor who is out-of-network, resulting in a much larger out-of-pocket cost to you. Asking about your share will remind your health-care team to keep you in the loop.
Although it does require some extra work on your part, don’t give up until you’re satisfied. Sometimes that takes repeated reminders to a doctor or patient navigator that you are on unstable financial ground and need their support, which isn’t always easy to do. But it’s the only way these professionals will know to reach out on your behalf, Rodriguez says.
If you do get a surprise bill that’s more than $400 over the estimated charge, you may be able to dispute that charge under the No Surprises Act, says Zhiyuan (Jason) Zheng, a senior principal scientist and health economist at the ACS.
Connect with support organizations
Groups like the ACS, CancerCare, HealthWell, and the Cancer Financial Assistance Coalition offer various types of monetary help for people with cancer and their families or can connect you to local or national groups that do, Rodriguez says.
These groups typically do a brief assessment of your diagnosis, medication, and finances, then come up with an action plan to get you the support you need. It usually takes less than 10 minutes, Klein says.
Here’s how to contact them:
Call the American Cancer Society helpline at 800-227-2345.
Apply online for a HealthWell grant at healthwellfoundation.org or call 800-675-8416.
Call the CancerCare hopeline at 800-813-4673.
Search the Cancer Financial Assistance Coalition database at cancerfac.org.
Don’t shrug these expenses off as mere pocket change: Since opening a kidney cancer-specific fund in 2015, HealthWell has awarded more than $200 million to more than 32,000 recipients, Klein says.
Stick to your treatment plan
Skipping follow-up appointments or delaying treatment is dangerous for your health and shouldn’t be part of your approach to handle the financial toll of cancer (or any diagnosis).
“We routinely hear that patients who cannot pay for their medication regimen as prescribed only fill their prescriptions or receive their medication treatment in intervals they can afford, which is often suboptimal, especially in oncology. Affording their cancer medications should be the last thing those patients should be worried about,” Klein says.
Financial hardship is associated with higher rates of death, including from cancer, according to March 2024 research in JAMANetwork Open that Zheng co-authored. “You have to make the horrible decision to either pay for medication or for rent or food, and that’s just not acceptable,” Klein says.
Even in the case of an advanced diagnosis, remain hopeful and committed to your treatment plan. “I was diagnosed with stage 4 cancer because it had spread to my stomach, lung, and brain,” Gillette says. “When you first hear that, you think, ‘It’s over.’” But immunotherapy has successfully reduced the size of many of his tumors. “Thankfully, through treatment, they were able to stop it in its tracks for now.”
Consider crowdfunding
When Gillette was really strapped for funds, his community pulled through: Friends he had made through volunteering with the ACS started a GoFundMe campaign that has raised more than $43,000 for his care, he says.
Crowdfunding for medical care is a popular tool and can be “an excellent show of support to that particular person through that person’s network,” Klein says. “I just wish it didn’t have to be that way. There should be a more systematic approach available to a patient that could point them in the right direction of all available resources at their disposal. These folks might qualify for things they don’t even know about. It’s a complicated web to have to navigate.”
This approach isn’t for everyone: You or your family may not have the time or energy to start a campaign, you could have concerns about privacy, or it might not be acceptable in your culture or family to ask publicly for money, Zheng says. But if you’re curious and want to try it, “it’s better than doing nothing,” Klein says.
The U.S. does not currently have national standards for paid sick leave, despite many other industrialized countries requiring this benefit to employees. Consider voting for local and national candidates who champion paid sick leave policies and contacting your senators and representatives to express your support for paid sick leave if and when you have the energy to do so.
“Regardless of the generosity of paid sick leave, it is typically not enough for patients who need to go to a radiation center three days a week for a period of six months, for example,” Zheng says. Still, “any paid sick leave policy is associated with earlier stage diagnosis and better treatment outcomes.”
Remember, navigating the financial toll of cancer might feel like it’s a task left to you alone to handle, but there are resources available to you that you may not know about yet. “It’s a matter of looking for them and being vulnerable enough to say, ‘I need help,’” Rodriguez says.
Slipping and sliding in the summer months is great—if you’re at a water park or in a pool, that is. Otherwise, it’s the miserable reality of sweaty feet.
“I’ve literally had patients come in and tell me they’re sweating so much, they’ve fallen out of their shoes,” says Dr. Dee Anna Glaser, a professor of dermatology at Saint Louis University School of Medicine and president of the International Hyperhidrosis Society. “Or they can’t wear heels because they’re afraid they’ll slip and break an ankle. It can go from mild and a nuisance to very significant.”
In rare cases, sweaty feet are caused by hyperhidrosis, a medical condition that triggers excessive sweating and affects different parts of the body, like the underarms, hands, and feet. It has a strong genetic component, Glaser says: More than half of people with it have at least one relative who has it. They sweat even when it’s not hot outside, so much that their clothes or shoes become completely soaked. “We don’t know exactly what the cause is, but we know that in those individuals, the sweat glands are completely normal,” she says. “It appears this problem is caused by a part of the brain that’s supposed to regulate temperature.” Treatment includes iontophoresis (which involves using a small device that produces sweat gland-blocking electrical currents) and Botox injections that generally last up to six months.
For most people, however, sweaty feet are simply the result of wearing the wrong shoes or socks—or spending hours outside on a hot day being active. The problem is worth addressing because fungus likes sweaty feet, opening the door to infections like athlete’s foot, which usually begins between the toes. “If you put a cotton sock on a foot, you stick it in a shoe, and then you get that dark, damp, moist environment, where it stays wet all the time, fungus grows,” says Jay Spector, a podiatrist at Atlanta Sports Podiatry in Johns Creek, Ga. “It’s just like if you have a leak in your bath you’re not aware of, and you have sitting water for a while.”
With that in mind, we asked experts how to best prevent and cope with sweaty feet.
Choose shoes that let your feet breathe
Wearing tight shoes that don’t allow for good air flow—like dress shoes or boots—can exacerbate sweating. Instead, look for lightweight athletic shoes with mesh on the outside, advises Danielle DesPrés, a podiatrist and foot and ankle surgeon in New York. “Mesh has airflow,” she says. Shoes without it won’t be as breathable.
Some brands, like Geox, sell shoes designed for ventilation, Glaser says. When you go shopping, she suggests asking the salesperson assisting you if they have any recommendations for sweaty feet. “People are embarrassed, but it’s so common,” she says. Shoe-store workers are usually well-versed in how to keep feet cool.
Another strategy, Glaser adds, is to add inserts to your shoes; they help absorb moisture so shoes stay drier longer. Summer Soles, for example, makes peel-and-stick shoe liners that can be used in sandals, heels, and other types of shoes. And if it’s possible, slip your shoes off during the workday. “I usually suggest to patients if they’re sitting at their desk and they get a moment, take their feet out of their shoes,” she says. “Get some air to them.”
If you have to wear certain shoes at work, get creative
Many of DesPrés’ clients are doormen and security workers—people who are on their feet all day, in the heat, in heavy shoes. Their feet tend to swell up throughout their shift, making their shoes tighter and more uncomfortable. Yet they’re required to wear black shoes, she says. So DesPrés came up with a solution: “I’ve told some of them to get a pair of sneakers that are really comfortable and supportive, because they often have other arch and foot problems too,” she says. “Then spray paint them black”—covering up light-colored mesh, brand names, and other markings—“and now you have your black shoes.” The workers who have tried it, she adds, assure her it does the trick. Some companies also make supportive black sneakers that could pass as dress shoes.
Put thought into socks
Socks play an important role in the sweaty-feet equation. Spector is a marathon runner, and he’s learned that the key to cutting back on sweat-drenched feet is wearing acrylic socks, which wick out moisture. (His favorite brand is Balega.) Merino wool works similarly—but he avoids cotton. With lightweight wool or sweat-wicking socks, “I’ll do a 20-mile run, and I take my socks off, and it’s as if I just put them on,” he says. “If I were to wear cotton socks, they’d weigh 10 pounds.”
There’s one time, however, when you should ditch the socks: overnight. “At some point, our feet need to breathe,” he says. “We don’t want to wear socks 24/7,” especially given that there might be bacteria or dirt inside of them. Going sockless for eight hours while you sleep is an excellent opportunity for your feet to air out, he adds.
Use antiperspirant—or tea bags
Apply some antiperspirant to the bottoms of your feet, DesPrés advises. Just make sure it’s spray-on, not roll-on, which helps ensure it won’t be slippery. Some people use anti-fungal powder on their feet, which isn’t necessarily a bad thing. “But depending how much your feet sweat, sometimes that powder can get all gooped up in your shoes,” she says, making antiperspirant the superior choice. If your go-to brand isn’t cutting it, DesPrés suggests the topical antiperspirant Drysol; it’s available over the counter and contains aluminum chloride hexahydrate, which helps treat overactive sweat glands.
A slightly more unconventional strategy: Boil a couple of unflavored black tea bags in a pint of hot water, and then pour some cold water into the mix. “Let it cool down, and then soak your feet in it,” DesPrés says. “The tannic acid [from the tea] helps kill bacteria and seals up some of the sweat glands.” It sounds weird, she acknowledges, but some people find that doing a tea soak at least once a week leads to less sweaty feet.
Dry out your shoes when you take them off
Pulling your feet out of sweat-soaked shoes is unpleasant—and so is trying to slide back into them. Shoe dryers can help: They blow cold air into shoes, just like a hair dryer. Spector goes for a run twice a day, and if it’s raining in the morning and his shoes get wet, he utilizes the dryer. “By 4:30 in the afternoon, when I’m going to run again, my shoes are no longer wet,” he says. Another idea: Put your sweaty shoes in front of the refrigerator. It has a vetting system on the bottom, Spector points out, and the cool air flowing out can help moisture evaporate from your shoes.
Give your shoes a bath
People often worry that their sweaty shoes are going to start to smell. That’s why DesPrés recommends spraying the insides with Lysol once every week or two. “It’ll kill whatever bacteria and fungus is in it,” she says, thus improving the odor. You can also toss some shoes into the washing machine. DesPrés has learned, however, that the standard detergent used for washing clothes doesn’t always suffice, so she adds Pine-Sol to the load. It’s a disinfectant that also helps deodorize.
One other way to make sure your shoes don’t start to smell, DesPrés adds, is to avoid wearing the same ones every day. If you find some you really like, buy two or three pairs, she suggests. Rotating which you wear every day gives them extra time to breathe and prevents odor from accumulating.
Plan ahead
Always take an extra pair of socks with you when you’re spending time outside. If you’re playing a three-hour beach volleyball game or running a 5K, and your feet are really sweaty, you’ll be glad you did. “Halfway through your event, you can put new socks on,” Spector says.
It’s also helpful to always carry antiperspirant wipes or a travel-size bottle of antiperspirant. And consider taking a pair of shoes along to change into after your outdoor activity. For example, “You could bring sandals to change into after a hike,” DesPrés says. That can help your feet stay dry and have time to air out. It’s one of plenty of small strategies that can help ensure you don’t need to break out into a sweat over the idea of sweaty feet.
Alana Yañez’s severe asthma had been completely under control for years. But when the 2020 wildfires started pumping thick plumes of ugly black smoke into the southern California sky, the 41-year-old Los Angeles resident began to wheeze.
She felt her chest tighten and then become painful. Yañez shut all the windows in her house, cranked the air conditioner, and turned on an air filter. But those measures barely made a dent in her symptoms.
“I was sucking on my inhaler every couple of hours,” Yañez says, adding that no matter what medications she was given, the pain in her chest persisted.
After several miserable days, Yañez remembered that she’d always breathed easier on the coast. When she checked local air quality maps, she saw that the air was far cleaner by the ocean. So she packed up her work and her little boy and headed for Redondo Beach.
“With every mile, my lungs felt better,” she says. “By the time I took the exit for the beach, I was able to breathe without pain.”
While dirty air—whether it’s due to diesel exhaust, traffic fumes, industrial pollution, or wildfires—can make breathing difficult for anyone, it hits people with severe asthma much harder, with some ending up in the emergency room or even hospitalized.
During the spring and summer of 2023, when Canadian wildfires were shooting thick clouds of smoke into the air, asthma-associated emergency room visits in the U.S. spiked 17% higher than what would normally be expected.
The research linking air pollution exposure to asthma attacks “is very consistent,” says Dr. Akhgar Ghassabian, an associate professor of pediatrics and population health at the NYU Grossman School of Medicine. Even low levels of exposure can trigger an exacerbation, she says, and the most at-risk groups are children and seniors.
How does dirty air harm the respiratory system and exacerbate asthma?
Over the past few decades, volunteers, one at a time, have entered a small chamber in a lab at the University of North Carolina and either pedaled on a stationary bike or sat quietly while components of diesel exhaust or smoke from burning wood were pumped into the room.
The volunteers had been carefully selected to avoid any severe reactions. They were all relatively young, under 45, and healthy overall, although some had mild asthma. After a few hours in the chamber, the study participants gave sputum samples, which helped researchers identify those who were sensitive to the fumes and exactly how their airways and lungs were being affected.
Early experiments by the researchers from UNC and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) looked at the impact of exposure to diesel exhaust components, which included fine particles (PM2.5), ozone, and other gases. In some volunteers, the fumes sparked increases in airway inflammation, says Dr. David Peden, senior associate dean of translational research and medical director of the Center for Environmental Medicine, Asthma and Lung Biology at the University of North Carolina School of Medicine.
“Our studies are designed to get an idea of the underlying biology, and to use this information and these methods to identify particular interventions,” Peden says. Inhaling exhaust constituents sparked neutrophilic and eosinophilic inflammation. “The most important thing we find with most air pollution is that it irritates the airway epithelium.”
Most people will acutely experience some degree of airway inflammation when they encounter air pollution or wildfire smoke, Peden says. “For many, it’s simply an annoyance, and they may not worry about it,” he adds.
But for those with severe asthma, the impact can be much greater, Peden says. That’s especially true for children: Their respiratory rates tend to be higher than those of adults, so even a small amount of polluted air can make a big impact.
The center’s most recent research has focused on potential treatments for exposure to pollution and wildfire smoke in the volunteers who were found to be sensitive. It’s yielded promising results. For example, people who overproduce mucus in response to dirty air may be helped by inhaling hypertonic saline solution. “When they inhale the solution, it loosens up the mucus,” Peden explains.
The research has also suggested a role for a certain type of vitamin D (gamma-tocopherol) that appears to calm the eosinophil response to pollution. But, Peden cautions, “this is a very early phase study. It’s not definitive.”
Ongoing research is examining the genetics that impact sensitivity to wildfire smoke and air pollution, as well as ways to protect people with respiratory diseases, such as studies to determine the efficacy of N95 masks.
Exposure to any kind of dirty air can make asthma a lot worse, says Dr. Stokes Peebles, section chief for allergy and immunology at Vanderbilt University Medical Center. “It can lead to a feeling of tightness in the chest, coughing and shortness of breath,” he says. “The fine particulate matter, PM2.5, can get down into the very lowest parts of the airways.”
Those ultrafine particles can also get deep inside the lungs, says Dr. Barbara Mann, an associate professor of medicine in the division of pulmonary, critical care and sleep medicine at the Icahn School of Medicine and at Mount Sinai in New York City. “They can evade most of the body’s defenses and wreak havoc.”
Air pollution can cause two airway issues: constriction and inflammation. And it doesn’t stop there, Mann says. The tiniest particles can leach into the bloodstream and cause systemic inflammation. The more severe a person’s asthma is at baseline, the smaller the dose of polluted air it takes to kick off an exacerbation, and the worse those flare-ups might be.
Wildfire smoke: an urgent danger
Wildfire smoke is an especially troublesome type of air pollution. It “dwarfs other kinds of air pollution,” Mann says. “It’s a toxic mix of both organic and inorganic materials that have been burned.”
As Peden points out, wildfires can significantly raise the amount of fine particles in the atmosphere. “In 2018, when the Camp Fire was burning, the amount of fine particles in San Francisco was up three- to five-fold,” he says.
Unlike industrial and traffic related air pollution, wildfire smoke is likely to also contain fumes from the burning of manmade items, such as houses and vehicles. That can be a nefarious combination.
Along with exacerbating asthma, air pollution can spark new onset airway disease in those who are exposed, says Matt Perzanowski, an associate professor of environmental health sciences at the Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health.
Moreover, studies done at Columbia have shown that when people are exposed to diesel smoke, they can develop allergies to proteins they weren’t previously allergic to. “We study children in the South Bronx,” Perzanowski says. “When they’re exposed to cockroaches and diesel exhaust, they are more likely to develop an allergy to cockroaches.”
Perzanowski recommends that parents limit their children’s exposure to pollution, especially wildfire smoke.
How to protect yourself
If you have asthma, the most important step you can take to avoid an exacerbation due to wildfire smoke and pollution is to check local air quality reports daily. “There’s good data available in real time,” Ghassabian says. AirNow.gov, for example, is a terrific resource.
On bad air quality days, take precautions to protect yourself from exposure to the dirty air. These are doctors’ favorite strategies:
Check ozone levels online and stay inside if they’re high. Close all the windows and block other spots where outside air could seep in.
Invest in a HEPA filter. According to the EPA, these can remove at least 99.97% of dust, pollen, mold, bacteria, and other airborne particles.
If the air quality index goes over 100, don’t exercise outside. If it’s over 150, don’t exercise at all.
When the index is lower than 100 but still relatively high, you can exercise outside, but only in the early morning or evening.
Switch the setting on your home and car air conditioners to recycle, so you’re not bringing in outside air.
Use an N95 mask when you go outside.
When wildfire smoke is at high levels, consider temporarily relocating to a spot where air quality is better.
Kenneth Luczko works remotely as an engineer for a tech company—which means his fingers dance across his keyboard all day. One might assume that’s the extent of his on-the-clock exercise. But by the time 5 p.m. rolls around, he’s logged at least 15,000 to 25,000 steps without even leaving his apartment.
Luczko, 26, is a walking pad fanatic. He bought one about a year and a half ago after seeing a TikTok video, and he now uses it every day. It’s basically a portable under-desk treadmill: less bulky than the kind you might have in your basement, and without any handrails. Walking pads have more limited speed options than regular treadmills, and they usually have a smaller incline, so you’re walking on a flat surface. Sometimes Luczko slowly plods along at 0.5 or 1 mile per hour on his, and other times he speeds up to 3 m.p.h. Doesn’t all that motion make it difficult to, well, work? “It actually helps put me into an awesome flow state when I’m programming,” he says. Plus, Luczko credits the walking pad with kickstarting his recent 100-pound weight loss: “It was like a gateway drug to going to the gym and going for walks outside.”
Walking pads—which cost about $150-$200—are trending on social-media platforms as a way to get your heart rate up and incorporate some movement into an otherwise sedentary day. While experts agree the devices should supplement, not replace, your regular exercise routine, they can be a smart alternative to plopping down on your office chair and staying there.
The health benefits of walking pads
Walking is one of the simplest ways for many people to get more exercise—but it’s also one of the easiest things to eliminate from our daily routines, says Akinkunle Oye-Somefun, a doctoral candidate at York University in Toronto who authored a recent meta-analysis of treadmill-desk research. Since the pandemic-related shift to remote work, he says, more people are sitting for at least eight hours a day—rather than walking to and from the office, out for lunch, or around the block for a breath of fresh air. That’s a problem. Sitting all day leads to a number of “detrimental outcomes,” Oye-Somefun says, including weight gain, heightened disease risk, and stress of the back, neck, arms, and legs. “Stress on the extremities begins to show after just one hour of sitting,” he adds. “It’s good to interrupt sitting,” and walking is superior to simply standing.
In addition to reducing sitting time, treadmill desks can lead to an array of benefits. They increase steps, and research suggests that logging at least 4,000 a day can reduce the risk of dying from any cause, including heart disease. You don’t even have to go that fast: Researchers have found that office workers who walked 1 mile per hour on a treadmill desk burned an extra 100 calories per hour. There’s now even walking-pad specific research. One small study, published in 2023, concluded that using one during the workday improved people’s energy levels, helped them feel less sore, reduced hip and back pain, boosted their mood, and made them feel more focused and creative.
Plus, it (probably) won’t impair your work. One study found that people on treadmill desks perform cognitive tasks nearly as well as those who are sitting—and the researchers concluded that the benefits outweighed any concern about concentration. “Everyone’s realizing, ‘I can walk while working, and it doesn’t impact my productivity,’” Oye-Somefun says. “‘I get mental clarity, I’m able to answer calls, I’m able to type.’”
What to look for when you’re picking one
James Rethaber went through three or four walking pads before finding one that checked all his boxes—and now, he uses it every day, usually while listening to webinars or taking a quick break. As the vice president of technical operations at Fit For Work, a company that specializes in industrial ergonomics and workplace injury prevention, he helps people understand what to look for when choosing a walking pad.
For starters: weight capacity. “I’m not a smaller person, so I needed to make sure it had a great capacity,” Rethaber says. Some walking pads can only accommodate 200 pounds; others are designed for people who weigh 300 pounds and up. The higher the weight capacity, he points out, the heavier duty the treadmill desk will be. The width of the belt—where you walk on the machine—also matters. Traditional treadmills typically have a belt width of 18 to 22 inches, while walking pads are in the 12 to 18 inches range. If you have limited space, look for one on the narrow side, Rethaber advises. But if you have a wider walking stance, and room to spare, you might appreciate a bigger belt, which also reduces the risk of accidentally stepping (or slipping) off the track.
Functionality varies between walking pads, too. Some are single purpose: designed to be used only under your desk, with a maximum speed of about 4 m.p.h. Others are dual purpose and can be used while working, or for faster walking, jogging, or running while moved away from the desk. In those cases, speed capacity is typically 8 to at least 10 m.p.h, Rethaber says, and you can attach collapsible handrails when you go fast.
While some walking pads are nearly silent, others “sound like jet engines”—so check the decibel rating of whichever one you’re considering, Rethaber advises. “If you’re in proximity to others, I always recommend looking for a treadmill that has a lower decibel rating,” he says. “And having a sound-absorbing pad underneath it, like a rubber mat, can really make a difference.”
It’s also helpful to consider whether a prospective walking pad is equipped with special features. Some include a tracker that displays the amount of time and number of steps you’ve completed in a day. You can also find models that have the ability to sync the number of steps you’ve logged on your walking pad with popular fitness apps, so all of your day’s activity is in one place.
Ergonomics matter, too
Walking pads should be comfortable to use, stresses Rethaber, who’s a certified professional ergonomist—which means he specializes in optimizing how people interact with their equipment and workspaces. He recommends building your work station around your walking pad, rather than trying to squeeze it into an established space. If you just slide it in, “things will be too low or too far away,” he says, opening the door to muscle strain and pain.
Ideally, your keyboard should be situated at a height that allows your elbows to be flexed to slightly below 90 degrees, he says. Frequently handled items—like your mouse, phone, and a notepad—should be within easy reaching distance. And the top third of your monitor should be at eye level. (If you wear corrective lenses like bifocals, you might find that having the monitor lower than eye level is more comfortable, Rethaber adds.)
Luczko, the engineer who works from home, selected a walking pad with two wheels in the front that fits nicely underneath his standing desk. “The desk has an automated feature to raise or lower it, so I just press the button, it raises it, and I roll [the pad] right under there,” he says. At the end of the workday, he folds it up and rolls it to the side of his office space until he’s ready to spring back into action.
Ensuring safety
If you don’t have balance issues, walking pads are just as safe as walking on a normal surface, Rethaber says—especially given that most people utilize theirs at a slow speed. Unlike with a regular treadmill, there are no handrails; clients sometimes ask him if that’s concerning. He tells them that if they feel a need for handles, it’s probably a sign that they’re walking too fast or while performing a task that requires intense focus. In those cases, it’s best to either slow down or sit down.
It’s also important to consider what shoes you’re wearing. “I always recommend wearing your exercise shoes, because they have the soles that are built for this and give you the cushion you need,” he says. Slippers and flip-flops aren’t appropriate for the walking pad—and neither is going barefoot.
How to get the most out of your walking pad
Madelyn Driver, 30, bought a walking pad about a year and a half ago. It allows her to exercise inside during the workday when the weather is unpredictable. “I mix it into my routine for a quick energy boost before a meeting, or sometimes I have these longer all-hand meetings,” she says. “It allows me to take multiple short walks, and sometimes longer walks, without any disruption to my workflow.” Just one hour of walking at a slow pace can mean an extra 5,000 to 6,000 steps, she adds.
Driver has noticed that when she uses her walking pad, her mood is elevated throughout the day, and she’s dropped a few pounds because of the extra calorie burn. “I think the biggest misconception I had was that I had to be exercising at the same intensity as when I’m at the gym,” she says. “You’re not trying to log marathon miles, and you’re not trying to be out of breath when you’re on these walking pads. I’m just moving slowly.”
If you’re new to walking pads, Rethaber advises following Driver’s lead and starting at a low speed, like 1 mile per hour. “See how you react to that,” he says—you’ll quickly figure out which tasks are feasible for you to do while walking, and which require sitting down. You can adjust your speed as you become more comfortable. The same goes for duration: Walk for 5 minutes here and there as your body adjusts to your new routine.
There’s some etiquette at play, too. It can be helpful to consider your company’s culture when deciding exactly when to walk, Rethaber points out. For video calls, “I don’t utilize it as much out of respect for others,” he says. “So they’re not hearing the impact, or if they’re susceptible to motion sickness, they’re not seeing me move up and down.”
There’s trial-and-error involved with figuring out exactly how to make a walking pad a regular part of your workday. But the payoff is worth it, Rethaber says—the devices make stepping into better health a feasible part of the workday.
Virtual private networks (VPNs) promise the potential to stream any content, from anywhere. They unlock content from abroad across nearly any streaming platform you use regularly, which can come in handy if you’re into some obscure BBC exclusive not available in the United States. But that’s actually just one small perk of VPN services. VPNs provide a private traffic tunnel to keep your internet service provider out of your business, and provide an extra layer of security to protect your browsing habits. We tested nine of today’s most popular VPNs to help you find the best option for your needs.
What is a VPN?
VPNs, or virtual private networks, mask your IP address and the identity of your computer or mobile device on the network and creating an encrypted “tunnel” that prevents your internet service provider (ISP) from accessing data about your browsing history. VPNs are not a one-size-fits-all security solution, though.
Instead, they’re just one part of keeping your data private and secure. Roya Ensafi, assistant professor of computer science and engineering at the University of Michigan, told Engadget that VPNs don’t protect against common threats like phishing attacks, nor do they protect your data from being stolen. Much of the data or information is stored with the VPN provider instead of your ISP, which means that using a poorly designed or unprotected network can still undermine your security. But they do come in handy for online privacy when you’re connecting to an untrusted network somewhere public because they tunnel and encrypt your traffic to the next hop.
That means sweeping claims that seem promising, like military-grade encryption or total digital invisibility, may not be totally accurate. Instead, Yael Grauer, program manager of Consumer Reports’ online security guide, recommends looking for security features like open-source software with reproducible builds, up-to-date support for industry-standard protocols like WireGuard (CR’s preferred protocol) or IPsec, and the ability to defend against attack vectors like brute force.
Understanding VPNs and your needs
Before considering a VPN, make sure your online security is up to date in other ways. That means complex passwords, multi-factor authentication methods and locking down your data sharing preferences. Even then, you probably don’t need to be using a VPN all the time.
“If you’re just worried about somebody sitting there passively and looking at your data then a VPN is great,” Jed Crandall, an associate professor at Arizona State University, told Engadget.
That brings us to some of the most common uses cases for VPNs. If you use public WiFi networks a lot, like while working at a coffee shop, then VPN usage can help give you private internet access. They’re also helpful for hiding information from other people on your ISP if you don’t want members of your household to know what you’re up to online.
Geoblocking has also become a popular use case as it helps you reach services in other parts of the world. For example, you can access shows that are only available on streaming services, like Netflix, Hulu or Amazon Prime, in other countries, or play online games with people located all over the globe.
There are also a few common VPN features that you should consider before deciding if you want to use one, and which is best for you:
What is split tunneling?
Split tunneling allows you to route some traffic through your VPN, while other traffic has direct access to the internet. This can come in handy when you want to protect certain activity online without losing access to local network devices, or services that work best with location sharing enabled.
What is a double VPN?
A double VPN, otherwise known as multi-hop VPN or a VPN chain, passes your online activity through two different VPN servers one right after the other. For VPN services that support this, users are typically able to choose which two servers they want their traffic to pass through. As you might expect, this provides an extra layer of security.
Are VPNs worth it?
Whether or not VPNs are worth it depends how often you could use it for the above use cases. If you travel a lot and rely on public WiFi or hotspots, are looking to browse outside of your home country or want to keep your traffic hidden from your ISP, then investing in a VPN will be useful. But, keep in mind that even the best VPN services often slow down your internet connection speed, so they may not be ideal all the time.
In today’s world, we recommend not relying on a VPN connection as your main cybersecurity tool. VPN use can provide a false sense of security, leaving you vulnerable to attack. Plus, if you choose just any VPN, it may not be as secure as just relying on your ISP. That’s because the VPN could be based in a country with weaker data privacy regulation, obligated to hand information over to law enforcement or linked to weak user data protection policies.
For VPN users working in professions like activism or journalism that want to really strengthen their internet security, options like the Tor browser may be a worthwhile alternative, according to Crandall. Tor is free, and while it’s less user-friendly, it’s built for anonymity and privacy.
How we tested
To test the security specs of different VPNs and name our top picks, we relied on pre-existing academic work through Consumer Reports, VPNalyzer and other sources. We referenced privacy policies, transparency reports and security audits made available to the public. We also considered past security incidents like data breaches.
We looked at price, usage limits, effects on internet speed, possible use cases, ease of use, general functionality and additional “extra” VPN features like multihop. The VPNs were tested across iOS, Android and Mac devices so we could see the state of the mobile apps across various platforms (Windows devices are also supported in most cases). We used the “quick connect” feature on the VPN apps to connect to the “fastest” provider available when testing internet speed, access to IP address data and DNS and WebRTC leaks or when a fault in the encrypted tunnel reveals requests to an ISP.
Otherwise, we conducted a test of geoblocking content by accessing Canada-exclusive Netflix releases, a streaming test by watching a news livestream on YouTube via a Hong Kong-based VPN and a gaming test by playing on servers in the United Kingdom. By performing these tests at the same time, it also allowed us to test claims about simultaneous device use. Here are the VPN services we tested:
Simultaneous connections: 10 | Number of devices: 10 | Platforms: Windows, Mac, Android, iOS, and Linux | Browser extensions: Chrome, Firefox | Dedicated IP addresses: Yes, for business users only | Trial/Money-back guarantee: None/30-day money-back guarantee
The VPNs we tried out ranked pretty consistently across all of our tests, but ProtonVPN stood out as a strong option because of its overall security, usability and privacy features. The Proton Technologies suite of services includes mail, calendar, drive and a VPN known for its end-to-end encryption. This makes it a strong contender for overall security, but its VPN specifically came across as a well-rounded independent service.
ProtonVPN’s no-logs policy has passed audits, and the company has proven not to comply with law enforcement requests. Because it is based in Switzerland, there are no forced logging obligations, according to the company. Plus, it’s based on an open-source framework, and has an official vulnerability disclosure program along with clear definitions on what it does with personal information.
While ProtonVPN offers a free version, it’s limited compared to other options, with access to server networks in just three countries. Its paid version, starting at about $5.39 per month, includes access to VPN server locations in more than 65 countries on 10 devices at a time. For dedicated Proton Technologies users, they can pay closer to $8.63 for a monthly plan to access the entire suite.
ProtonVPN passed our geoblock, streaming and gaming tests with only a very small toll on connection speeds. It also comes with malware-, ad- and tracker-blocking as an additional service, plus it has a kill switch feature on macOS, Windows, Linux, iOS and the latest version of Android. It’s available on most major operating systems, routers, TV services and more including Firefox, Linux and Android TV. For dedicated Linux users, ProtonVPN added a new Linux-specific app to support its services in August.
Pros
Easy to use
No-logs policy
Based on open-source framework
Kill switch feature on macOS, Windows, Linux, iOS and Android
Simultaneous connections: Unlimited | Number of devices: Unlimited | Platforms: Windows, Mac, Android, iOS, and Linux | Browser extensions: Chrome, Firefox | Dedicated IP addresses: No | Trial/Money-back guarantee: None/None
By signing up for Windscribe’s free plan with your email, users can access 10GB per month of data, unlimited connections and access to more than 10 countries. We selected it as the best free VPN because of its high security and wide range of server locations compared to other free VPNs. It has over 500 servers in over 60 countries, according to the company, and can be configured to routers, smart TVs and more on top of the usual operating systems.
Windscribe doesn’t have a recent independent security audit, but it does publish a transparency report showing that it has complied with zero requests for its data, runs a vulnerability disclosure program encouraging researchers to report flaws and offers multiple protocols for users to connect with.
On top of that, it’s easy to use. The set up is intuitive and it passed our geoblock, streaming and gaming tests. The paid version costs $5.75 to $9 each month, depending on the plan you choose, and includes unlimited data, access to all servers and an ad/tracker/malware blocker. Or, for $1 per location per month, users can build a plan tailored to the VPNs they want to access. Windscribe is still expanding its reach, adding Japan to its list of available spots.
We picked the best VPN service for travel, gaming and streaming based on which one had access to the most locations with high speed connections and no lag. ExpressVPN met all those criteria and was one of the most premium VPNs we tried, not to mention one of the fastest VPNs, too. Now, it even comes with an in-house password manager, ExpressVPN Keys, to manage and autofill logins across sites included with the subscription. That will make it easier to toggle between streaming and gaming accounts while browsing securely.
An internet speed test measured faster upload and download speed compared to using no VPN, practically unheard of compared to the other VPNs tested. But being this fast is likely a fluke due to the VPN service circumventing traffic shaping by the ISP or another disparity because even top VPNs will in some way slow down speeds. With 2,000 servers in 160 cities, according to the company, it had one of the broadest global reaches. It also passed our geoblock, streaming and gaming tests, and it does regular security audits. Plus, Network Lock is its kill switch feature, which keeps your data safe even if you lose connection to the VPN. Subscription costs range from $8.32 to $12.95 per month depending on the term of the plan, and include a password manager.
With ExpressVPN, users can connect to up to five devices at once, which is on the lower side compared to other services. That said, it works on a bunch of devices from smart TVs to game consoles, unlike some other services that lack support beyond the usual suspects like smartphones and laptops.
Pros
High speed connections with no lag in many locations
Supports Network Lock kill switch feature
Works on a variety of devices like smart TVs and game consoles
Simultaneous connections: 7 | Number of devices: 7 | Platforms: Windows, Mac, Android, iOS, and Linux | Browser extensions: Chrome, Firefox | Dedicated IP addresses: Yes, additional purchase required | Trial/Money-back guarantee: 2 free months/45-day money-back guarantee
Because several of the best VPN services connect to routers, cross-platform accessibility isn’t always necessary. By connecting a VPN to your home router, you can actually connect to unlimited devices in your household, as long as they all access the internet through that router.
But if you use VPNs on the go, and across several devices, being able to connect to a wide range of platforms will be indispensable. CyberGhost offers simultaneous connectivity on up to seven devices for $2.11 to $12.99 per month depending on subscription term. It supports several types of gadgets like routers, computers, smart TVs and more. It’s similar to the support that ExpressVPN offers, but CyberGhost provides detailed instructions on how to set up the cross-platform connections, making it a bit more user-friendly for those purposes. Plus, it just expanded its network of servers from 91 to 100 countries, adding Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru, Uruguay, Laos, Myanmar, Nepal, Guatemala and the Dominican Republic to its available locations.
From a security perspective, CyberGhost completed an independent security audit by Deloitte earlier this year, runs a vulnerability disclosure program and provides access to a transparency report explaining requests for its data. An updated version of its transparency report went live in August. While it did pass all of our tests, it’s worth noting that we had trouble connecting to servers in the United Kingdom and had to opt to run our gaming test through an Ireland-based server instead.
Pros
Works well across different kinds of devices/platforms
Provides detailed instructions for setting service up on different devices
As we mentioned before, connecting to a router can provide nearly unlimited access to devices in a single household. But Surfshark VPN is one of few VPN services that offer use on an unlimited number of devices without bandwidth restrictions, according to the company. And you get that convenience without a significant increase in price: Surfshark subscriptions cost about $2.49 to $12.95 for a monthly subscription, and the company recently conducted its first independent audit. It added QR-code-enabled login across devices and expanded support for alternative ID profiles since our initial review, a feature that some of its competitors already had.
We ran into some trouble connecting to Surfshark’s WireGuard protocol, but tested on an IKEv2 protocol instead. The VPN speed was a bit slow and struggled to connect for our geoblock test at first, but ultimately passed. What makes it different from other VPNs with unlimited connection options is that it has access to a larger number of servers and is available on more types of devices.
NordVPN didn’t quite make the cut because it’s overhyped, and underwhelming. As I’ve written in our full review of NordVPN, the pricing, up to $14.49 for a “complete” subscription, seemed high compared to other services, and its free or lower cost plans just didn’t have the same wide variety of features as its competitors.
TunnelBear
Despite the cute graphics and user friendliness, TunnelBear wasn’t a top choice. It failed numerous basic security tests from Consumer Reports, and had limited availability across platforms like Linux. It did, however, get a major security boost in July when it updated to support WireGuard protocol across more of its platforms.
Bitdefender VPN
Bitdefender doesn’t offer support for devices like routers, which limits its cross-platform accessibility. It also lacked a transparency report or third-party audit to confirm security specs.
Atlas VPN
Atlas ranked lower on our speed tests compared to the other VPNs tested, with a notably slower difference on web browsing and streaming tests. It was a good option otherwise, but could easily cause headaches for those chasing high speed connections. Security-wise, an Atlas VPN vulnerability leaked Linux users’ real IP addresses.
VPN FAQs
What are some things VPNs are used for?
VPNs are traditionally used to protect your internet traffic. If you’re connected to an untrusted network like public WiFi in a cafe, using a VPN hides what you do from the internet service provider. Then, the owner of the WiFi or hackers trying to get into the system can’t see the identity of your computer or your browsing history.
A common non-textbook use case for VPNs has been accessing geographically restricted content. VPNs can mask your location, so even if you’re based in the United States, they can make it appear as if you’re browsing abroad and unblock access. This is especially useful for streaming content that’s often limited to certain countries, like if you want to watch Canadian Netflix from the US.
What information does a VPN hide?
A VPN doesn’t hide all of your data. It only hides information like your IP address, location and browser history. A common misconception is that VPNs can make you totally invisible online. But keep in mind that the VPN provider often still has access to all of this information, so it doesn’t grant you total anonymity. You’re also still vulnerable to phishing attacks, hacking and other cyberthreats that you should be mindful of by implementing strong passwords and multi-factor authentication.
Are VPNs safe?
Generally, yes. VPNs are a safe and reliable way to encrypt and protect your internet data. But like most online services, the safety specifics vary from provider to provider. You can use resources like third-party audits, Consumer Reports reviews, transparency reports and privacy policies to understand the specifics of your chosen provider.
What about Google’s One VPN?
Google One subscriptions include access to the company’s VPN, which works similarly to other VPNs on our list, hiding your online activity from network operators. However, Google announced recently that it plans to shut down the One VPN because “people simply weren’t using it.” There’s no specific date for the shutdown, with Google simply saying it will discontinue the service sometime later in 2024. Pixel phone owners, however, will continue to have access to the free VPN available on their devices.
Update November 10, 2023: This story was updated after publishing to remove mention of PPTP, a protocol that Consumer Reports’ Yael Grauer notes “has serious security flaws.”
In order to get all of the features you’d need to get the most comprehensive listening experience possible, over-ear, noise-canceling headphones are likely your best option. Stellar sound quality, powerful active noise cancelation (ANC), reliable Bluetooth connections and more should all be present on a good pair of wireless headphones that offer the complete package. Of course, some companies do this better than others. At Engadget, we review dozens of Bluetooth headphones each year while testing even more to keep our finger on the pulse. For this guide, we selected our top picks based on the best mix of features, including overall audio quality, ANC performance, comfort, advanced audio tools and more. Our seven favorites offer all of the conveniences we’d expect in a set of high-quality wireless headphones, with a range of prices to help you stay within your budget.
How to choose the best wireless headphones for you
When it comes to shopping for a good pair of wireless headphones, the first thing you’ll need to decide on is wear style. Do you prefer on-ear or over-ear headphones? For the purposes of our buyer’s guide, we focus on the over-ear style as that’s what most noise-canceling headphones are nowadays. Sure, you can find on-ear models with ANC, but over-ear designs are much more effective at blocking sound. Speaking of noise cancellation, you’ll want to determine early on if you even want that. If you frequently crank up the beats in noisy environments, you’ll want to not only make sure it’s there, but also make sure it’s good. If you plan to use your new headphones in quieter spaces, skipping ANC can save you some money.
The next area to consider is features. We recommend trying to get the most bang for your buck, but as you’re shopping around you should determine which items are must-haves and what you can live without. And don’t take basic things like automatic pausing and Bluetooth multipoint connectivity for granted, as not all companies include them. We also suggest reading reviews to see how well a company’s more advanced features work. This will help you decide if those are something you’re willing to (likely) pay extra for. Pay close attention to battery life estimates and don’t be easily swayed by lofty promises about call quality.
Sound can be subjective, so we recommend trying before you buy if at all possible. We understand this isn’t easy at a time when we’re doing most of our shopping online. But trying on a set of headphones and listening to them for a few minutes can save you from an expensive case of buyer’s remorse. We also recommend paying attention to things like Spatial Audio, Dolby Atmos, 360 Reality Audio and other immersive formats. Not all headphones support them, so you’ll want to make sure a perspective pair does if that sort of thing excites you.
How we test wireless headphones
The primary way we test wireless headphones is to wear them as much as possible. We prefer to do this over a one- to two-week period, but sometimes embargoes don’t allow it. During this time, we listen to a mix of music and podcasts, while also using the earbuds to take both voice and video calls. Since battery life for headphones can be 30 hours or more, we drain the battery with looping music and the volume set at a comfortable level (usually around 75 percent). Due to the longer battery estimates, we’ll typically power the headphones off several times and leave them during a review. This simulates real-world use and keeps us from having to constantly monitor the process for over 24 straight hours.
To judge the best Bluetooth headphones, we consider audio quality by listening to a range of genres, noting any differences in the sound profile across the styles. We also test at both low and high volumes to check for consistency in the tuning. To assess the quality of phone calls, we’ll record audio samples with the headphones’ microphones as well as have third parties call us.
When it comes to features, we do a thorough review of companion apps, testing each feature as we work through the software. Any holdovers from previous models are double checked for improvements or regression. If the headphones we’re testing are an updated version of a previous model, we’ll spend time getting reacquainted with the older set. Ditto for the closest competition for each new set of headphones that we review.
Sony’s 1000X line has been our top pick for best wireless headphone for a long time now. Until another company can pack in as many high-quality features as Sony, and do so with a mix of excellent sound quality and effective ANC, the crown is safe. With the WH-1000XM5, Sony redesigned its flagship headphones, making them way more comfortable to wear for long periods of time. We also noticed in our tests that the company made noticeable improvements to the active noise cancellation, thanks to a separate V1 chip in addition to the QN1 that was inside the M4. There are now eight total ANC mics as well – the previous model only had four. This all combines to better block background noise and high frequencies, including human voices.
The 1000XM5 still has all of the features that typically make Sony’s top-of-the-line headphones showstoppers. That includes 30-hour battery life and crisp, clear sound with balanced tuning and punchy bass. A combo of touch controls and physical buttons give you on-board access to music, calls and noise modes without reaching for your phone. Speak-to-Chat automatically pauses audio when you begin talking, and like previous Sony headphones, the M5 can change noise modes based on your activity or location. Plus, this model offers better call quality than most of the competition. The only real downside is that they’re $50 more than the WH-1000XM4 at full price ($400).
An upgraded version of the Px7 S2, the Px7 S2e’s changes are mostly in the sound department. Bowers & Wilkins updated the digital signal processing (DSP) engine for improved performance when streaming music. The changes it introduced include support for up to 24-bit high-resolution streaming from compatible services. The company says it also re-tuned the acoustics for “unmatched detail, dynamics and spaciousness,” which is the more noticeable tweak compared to the previous model. Those promises hold true, too: the Px7 S2e are at the top of our test unit pile in terms of overall sound quality, just like the Px7 S2 has been since their introduction.
Bowers & Wilkins kept the rest of what was so great about the Px7 S2 as well. Reliable physical controls don’t lead to any frustration when you use them and the ANC performance is good enough to block out a lot of distractions. Factor in the refined design and overall comfort, and you’ve got a great set of headphones that rival the best. The Px7 S2e still doesn’t have a lot of the more advanced features that Sony offers, but they sound so good you might not even notice.
Noise cancellation: No | Multipoint: Yes | Battery life: 60 hours | Weight: 1.42 pounds | Water resistance: None
Audio-Technica has introduced affordable wireless headphones in the past, and while they didn’t offer active noise cancellation, they’re still worth considering. The company’s latest is the M20xBT, a Bluetooth version of the A-T’s popular M20x wired cans. For just $79, you can expect a comfortable fit and up to 60 hours of battery life. Bluetooth multipoint connectivity allows you to connect to multiple devices at once and physical buttons provide reliable on-board control. The design isn’t as refined as the company’s pricer models like the M50xBT2, but you get the bulk of what makes Audio-Technica’s cheaper options so good.
While we haven’t tested the newly renamed QuietComfort Headphones, these cans replace the Bose QuietComfort 45 in the company’s lineup so that’s why they’re on our list. These new wireless headphones are nearly identical to the previous version, except for the added ability to adjust ANC levels and save custom modes. You’ll still get the best noise-blocking performance of any headphone company alongside a supremely comfy fit and 24-hour battery life. Multipoint Bluetooth is here as well.
Back at CES 2022, Panasonic announced the EAH-A800: a new set of active noise canceling headphones under the iconic Technics brand. While most of the features are what you see on any number of wireless headphones, one figure stood out. The company says you can expect up to 50 hours of battery life on the A800, and that’s with active noise cancellation enabled. While we haven’t put them through the full review analysis, I have already tested them on a long flight. The ANC is impressive and they’re comfortable enough to avoid becoming a burden after several hours. Sound quality is also quite good (there’s LDAC support, too) and there are enough features here to justify the premium price tag.
While Master & Dynamic is known for its design prowess, the company’s over-ear headphones were due for a refresh. With the MW75 that debuted in June, the company opted for a look that takes cues from its MG20 gaming headset and mixes them with a combo of aluminum, leather and tempered glass. The company’s trademark sound quality returns with multiple ANC modes and ambient sound options for a range of situations. At $599, the high-end looks don’t come cheap, but if you’re looking for something beyond the pure plastic fashion of most headphones, M&D has you covered.
Apple’s AirPods Max are premium, well-designed headphones that incorporate all of the best features you find on standard AirPods: solid noise cancelation, spatial audio and easy Siri access. However, their $550 starting price makes them almost prohibitively expensive, even for those with Apple devices. There are better options available at lower prices.
Sony WH-CH720N
While the WH-CH720N are a great affordable option, we prefer the Audio-Technica in the budget category. Sony’s cans are lightweight with good sound quality, but ANC struggles at times and they’re made with a lot of plastic.
Beats Studio Pro
The Studio Pro lacks basic features like automatic pausing, and multipoint connectivity is only available on Android. Moreover, they’re not very comfortable for people with larger heads. Overall sound quality is improved, though, and voice performance on calls is well above average.
Bose QuietComfort Ultra
Bose’s latest flagship model has a lot to offer, but its trademark Immersive Audio feature can be inconsistent across different types of music. There’s still world-class ANC, excellent comfort and a clearer transparency mode, but for the price, the non-Ultra model is a better choice right now.
Master & Dynamic MH40 (2nd gen)
The MH40 are a great set of headphones if you favor crisp, clear and natural sound that isn’t overly tuned. This pair showcases the company’s affinity for leather and metal too, but limited customization and short battery life for non-ANC cans kept this set from making the cut.
Bowers & Wilkins Px8
The company’s trademark pristine sound is on display here, but the Px8 are more expensive and not nearly as comfortable as the Px7 S2.
FAQs
How can you tell the quality of headphones?
I typically look at three factors: design, sound quality and features. In terms of design, I’m usually looking to see if the build quality of the headphones feels cheap and plasticky. Plenty of companies use plastic, but they can do so in a way that doesn’t look or feel like budget models. For sound quality, I want to hear a nice, even tuning where highs, mids and lows are all well represented. No overly boomy bass or scooped out mids. I also want good clarity where you can pick up fine details and an open, immersive soundstage. Features is typically a distant third, but if a company doesn’t cover basic functionality (automatic pausing, transparency mode, multipoint Bluetooth, etc.) it can be an indication of overall quality.
How do I choose the best quality headphones?
“Best” can be pretty subjective, but I always recommend going to a place where you can listen to the headphones you’re thinking about buying before you commit. Sometimes this isn’t possible, so you’ll want to check return policies. I also recommend doing some research to determine what your priorities are in a new set. Are you an audiophile who wants the best sound quality? Is powerful active noise cancellation (ANC) the most important? Would you rather have conveniences like automatic pausing?
Which brand has the best headphones?
Sony consistently tops our list with its 1000X line. This is mostly due to the combination of sound quality, ANC performance and the truckload of features these headphones pack in. I’ll be the first to tell you that there are better sounding options and other companies, like Bose, offer more effective noise cancellation. But when you add everything up, no one comes close to the full slate of tools Sony puts in its premium headphone line.
Do expensive headphones sound better?
Exorbitant price tags don’t mean better audio quality. Bowers & Wilkins’headphones are on the high end for wireless noise-canceling models and they sound amazing. However, Audio-Technica’s M50xBT2 is much more affordable and doesn’t have ANC, but these headphones have a warm, natural sound profile that I find very inviting. At the end of the day, it will come down to personal preference, but you don’t need to spend a lot to find great headphones.
Kris Jenner is the longtime “momager” for her brood of extremely famous children. She reportedly gets 10% of everything they earn from their beauty brands, licensing deals, and modeling gigs!
Wake me when it’s over—summer, that is. I know, I know, you just love it: the long days, the warm evenings, the trips to the beach, the afternoons at the ballpark when your favorite team is playing and the pennant race is tightening—and the temperature is skyrocketing, and your skin is blistering, and the beer is $6, and the drive home will be in 88° heat, which is fine if you don’t mind running the air conditioner, except that you’re burning through $4–a-gallon gas, because it’s summer-driving season and the giant oil companies didn’t get to be the giant oil companies without knowing the right time of year to hike their prices.
And that’s hardly all of it. Summertime is the season of horribles, from higher crime rates, to increased warfare, to spikes in asthma, to raging wildfires, to swarms of bugs, to a rise in traffic accidents—and even to a bump in divorces, because how could a 100° heat wave, a busted A.C., and the kids out of school not spell domestic bliss?
What’s more, it’s only getting worse. Last summer was the hottest on record, according to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and the 10 warmest years were all from 2010 to 2022. So with a lousy part of the year becoming lousier still, here, in no particular order, are nine reasons summer is the suckiest season of them all.
Road wrecks
There’s nothing like long days, no school, and lots of teen drivers to make the highways a safe place to be. Not. It’s no coincidence that the Automobile Association of America (AAA) labels the stretch between Memorial Day and Labor Day “the 100 deadliest days.” There are over 11.7 million U.S. drivers between the ages of 15 and 20, and if you know what’s good for you you’ll stay out of their way—especially when they’re out as a group, driving recreationally. “We know that when teens are joyriding as opposed to driving with a specific destination and time in mind, there is a heightened risk,” said Diana Gugliotta, senior manager of public affairs for AAA Northeast, in a statement last year.
AAA’s numbers back that up. When a teen driver has only other teens in a vehicle, the risk of fatality for the driver and all passengers increases 51%. When at least one passenger is over 35, the overall fatality risk declines 8%. From 2011 to 2020, there were 7,316 deaths in summertime teen-related traffic accidents—nearly half the total of all teen-related traffic accidents for the year.
This means war
Napoleon Bonaparte could tell you a thing or two about what it’s like to pick a fight with Russia in the dead of winter. In 1812, the French army suffered half a million casualties in battles that climaxed in December—a rout that led to Napoleon’s abdication and exile in 1914. Any general worth his steed would prefer to fight in the summer when there’s plenty of light, the roads are clear, and soldiers aren’t bundled up against the cold. As far back as 55 BCE, the Roman army’s “campaigning season” would end when summer wound down and the soldiers would retreat to their winter quarters. It’s probably not a coincidence that World War I began in August 1914, World War II on Sept. 1, 1939, and Nazi Germany’s invasion of Russia in June 1941. More recently, in August 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait, and in August 1991, the old Soviet Union nearly fell into civil war when communist hardliners tried to oust President Mikhail Gorbachev. America’s 20-year war in Afghanistan typically saw its fiercest fighting in the summer months, and the same is true of the war in Ukraine.
Hot-weather warfare is likely only to get worse. A 2009 paper in PNAS found that rising temperatures exacerbated by climate change could lead to a 54% increase in the risk of civil war in Africa by 2030. A 2011 study in Nature found that warmer weather during El Niño years doubled the risk of civil war in 90 tropical countries and could have accounted for 20% of conflicts around the world over the past half century. Meantime, what’s the season of peace on Earth and goodwill toward men? Wintertime, baby. Wintertime.
Going buggy
Summer advertises itself as the season of birdsong and butterflies. Don’t believe it. It’s the season of pests—particularly ticks, mosquitoes, flies, fleas, bees, and wasps. Ticks, mosquitoes, and fleas in particular can spread diseases that include malaria, yellow fever, Zika, dengue, Lyme, and chikungunya. Bees, wasps, and yellowjackets—with their infernal stings—are similarly creatures of the summer. And you think you know flies? You don’t know flies. There are 110,000 species of them—most more active in hot weather—making up a global population of 17 million flies for every living human. Pssst! They’ve got us surrounded.
Ah, summer, it takes your breath away. Literally. More than 25 million Americans have asthma, and 4.7 million of them are children—according to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). If that means suffering during the temperate months, it’s much worse when the oven that is summer turns the dial up to broil. Heat and humidity constrict and narrow airways, trap ozone, and cause the air to entrain more particulate matter from cars, trucks, and smokestacks. What’s more, stagnant summer air—especially in homes with poor air conditioning or none at all—can exacerbate the presence of mold, dust, and pollen. And then—and stop me if I’ve mentioned this before—climate change is making things more punishing still for people with asthma. A 2023 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency report found that rising temperatures could increase the incidence of childhood asthma by anywhere from 4% to 11%, due partly to worsening pollution and allergies, and the growing problem of wildfire smoke.
Speaking of wildfires…
When it comes to dust, haze, and a mustard-colored sky, Mars has got nothing on Earth—at least during the summer fire season. Last year’s Canadian wildfires, sparked by lightning and fueled by high temperatures and drought, torched more than 71,000 square miles of land in Canada—an area the size of North Dakota—and yellowed out skies in the U.S. from the Midwest to the Northeast to the mid-Atlantic states. But the U.S. is playing with matches too. California’s wildfire season runs from April through October—peaking in the summer—with megadroughts and heat waves driving the flames. Of the state’s 20 largest fires, half occurred from 2017 to 2022. Climate change, of course, plays a regrettable role in all of this.
Crime and punishment
Nothing puts bad guys in a bad mood like hot weather—or so it seems. A 2019 study by the National Bureau of Economic Research found that on days with a maximum temperature above 85°F, all crime increases by 2.2% and violent crime by 5.7%. A 2023 study in PLOS One attributed this to what is known as the Theory of Routine Activities, which postulates that for crime to occur, three factors must be present: a motivated offender, a suitable target, and an absence of guards or surveillance. Of these, it is the second one—the suitable target—that is especially common in summer, according to the 2023 study, with greater numbers of people out on the streets.
As for the first variable, a motivated offender, well, even criminals don’t want to be outside commiting a crime in a 20°-below polar vortex. During a particularly deep freeze in 2015, Boston saw a 32% drop in burglaries, a 35% drop in larceny, and 46% drop in vehicle theft. Over the same period, New York City set a modern-day record, going 12 days without a homicide.
Summer’s contribution to violent crime in particular may be due at least in part to the common experience of hot weather leading to hot tempers, with even the most even-keeled people more inclined to blow a seam if they can’t cool off. One 2020 study found that people playing competitive video games in a hot room were more aggressive toward their gaming partner than they were when the room was cooler.
Finally, the atmospherics are all wrong. Nighttime is nighttime, people; the sun is the party guest that won’t go home if it’s still out at 9 p.m. I say send it packing no later than 8 p.m. and then race back to a nice wintertime sundown at cocktail hour. Cheers.
Trouble on the homefront
If you want to stay married, it might be wise to sleep through summer. That’s the finding of a 2016 study out of the University of Washington showing that August, along with March, are the two peak months for divorce in the U.S. The reason in both cases is more or less the same: couples tend to see winter and summer vacations as untouchable family time and, even in highly stressed marriages, will make it a point to hold the ship together for those treasured stretches. Once the good times are over, however, the marriages might be too.
“People tend to face the holidays with rising expectations, despite what disappointments they might have had in years past,” said sociology professor and the study’s co-author Julie Brines, in a statement at the time the research was released. “They’re very symbolically charged moments in time.”
When those expectations are dashed, a bust-up is likelier to follow. And while both early spring and late summer were implicated equally in that study, other research by Stowe Family Law in the U.K. found that September—the tail end of summer—is the peak divorce month on the other side of the pond, with total-immersion family time throwing financial, interpersonal, and other issues into relief.
It kills your skin
No matter how good it might feel to bake in the sun, your skin really, truly does not want a tan. In a rapidly warming world, it should come as no surprise that the sun is murder on your skin—drying it, aging it, cracking it, and much more importantly, leading to cancer. A 2022 paper in the journal Cureus found the highest rates of skin cancer diagnoses occurring from July to October.
Simple steps like wearing sunscreen, avoiding the sun from 10 a.m. to 4 p.m., and wearing protective clothing can all help reduce the risk. Sunshine in the winter, of course, can cause similar damage, but in the summer you’re out a whole lot more and wearing a whole lot less. That—like summer as a whole—spells trouble.
French for “under vacuum,” sous vide cooking involves immersing vacuum-sealed food in a temperature-controlled water bath until the food is cooked to your liking. It might sound intimidating, and it’s true that this cooking method was once the province of professional cooks with expensive equipment. But that’s not the case anymore — not only is sous vide cooking more accessible than ever now, but there are a number of sous vide machines out there that don’t cost a fortune. And, like a lot of kitchen tools now, many sous vide devices even have companion apps and Wi-Fi connectivity that make the process even more automated. If you’re curious about giving sous vide cooking a go, we’ll walk you through the process of choosing the right machine for you and share some of the tips and tricks we’ve learned through our own experiments.
How to pick a smart sous vide machine
If you’re going to choose a sous vide machine, we definitely recommend getting a smart one, which means it either has Bluetooth or WiFi capabilities (or both). That’s because this often adds a whole lot more features than you might otherwise have. We suggest getting models with a companion app that will help you set up and monitor your sous vide temperature remotely. Bluetooth-only models work when you’re within 30 to 40 feet of the cooker, while those with WiFi let you supervise your food from anywhere in your home, or as long as you’re on the same network. We also tend to prefer apps that come with recipes already on it, especially if you’re new to sous vide cooking and need some help getting started.
Other factors to consider
At a minimum, the other items you need to cook sous vide are a large metal pot (big enough to fill with water) and zipper-lock freezer bags to put the food in. Alternatively, you can use reusable silicone bags such as these from Stasher. Rather than using a vacuum sealer to get rid of air, you would use the water displacement method: Immerse the bagged food in the water while partially unsealed, and water pressure will push the air through the opening. Once everything is mostly underwater, you can seal the bag and it’ll stay submerged.
If it still floats, you can stick one or two spoons in the bag, and that will hopefully weigh things down. (J. Kenji Lopez-Alt from Serious Eats also suggests using a large binder clip attached to the bottom of the bag along with a heavy spoon.) If you’re concerned about water getting in the bag, you can attach the bag tops to the pot with binder clips, thus keeping the bag upright.
If you’re really serious about sous vide, you might want to invest in some specialty equipment. Instead of pots, for example, you could opt for large restaurant-grade plastic containers by Cambro or Rubbermaid. Not only is plastic a better insulator than metal, but there’s generally more space for more food, which is handy when you’re cooking for a crowd.
Whether you use a pot or a plastic container, it’s best to cover the vessel with plastic wrap when cooking for long periods, to keep evaporation to a minimum. Some companies, like Chefsteps, offer custom silicone pot lids that are made specially to accommodate their sous vide cookers. Alternatively, Lopez-Alt offers a much cheaper and more ingenious solution: cover your water in ping pong balls. They’ll slow down evaporation.
Additionally, while zipper-lock bags work well for most tasks, it’s still not a bad idea to get a vacuum sealer along with thicker plastic bags designed specifically for sous vide. For one, this lets you sous vide vegetables or braised meats, which typically require a higher temperature. (Zipper-lock bag seams might fail when it’s that hot.) This also lets you freeze a bunch of food, vacuum seal them and sous vide packets straight from the freezer, which is convenient for batch cooking.
You likely already have this at your disposal, but another handy tool is a good skillet to sear your meat. That sous vide device might be able to cook your steak to medium rare, but it won’t be able to brown it. A cast iron skillet, on the other hand, will. You could also consider a torch like the Bernzomatic TS8000, and we’ve seen others use a Searzall — but a cast iron skillet is far more affordable than either option. Of course, if you have a grill, you can use that too.
There are other miscellaneous items that could prove useful. Lopez-Alt likes having a pot lid organizer immersed in the container to help separate several submerged bags. If you want to make custard, yogurt or breakfast cups with your sous vide cooker, you should get yourself some mason jars too.
One more indispensable item worth considering: a trivet to rest your water vessel on so you don’t destroy your countertop.
Sous vide recipe resources
Since affordable sous vide cookers have been in the market for a few years now, there’s no shortage of recipes and guidelines online to help you figure out what to do with your newfangled kitchen gadget. The links below are some of our favorites, though bear in mind that a lot of this is based on personal taste. Your mileage may vary.
It only makes sense that the maker of one of the most popular sous vide machines also has a deep library of sous vide recipes. If you’re ever at a loss as to what to make via sous vide, simply peek at this website, where you can search for recipes from professionals and amateurs alike.
We’ve mentioned it several times here already in this guide, but Serious Eats truly is a remarkably useful resource for all things sous vide. Its guide to sous vide steak is a favorite among Engadget staffers, as is its take on slow-cooked sous-vide style eggs, which results in some of the best eggs I’ve ever had.
Years before making the Joule, Chefsteps made a name for itself as a cooking school with a heavy emphasis on food science, tech and molecular gastronomy. That’s probably why the sous vide recipes from Chefsteps are some of the more creative ones we’ve seen. One recipe, for example, teaches you how to make that perfect chicken breast along with the perfect accompaniment for said chicken breast — perhaps a crunchy apple fennel salad and a buttery carrot puree. Other favorite recipes include wonderfully tender salmon filets, juicy pork chops and Chefsteps’ own interpretation of the “sous vide egg bites” you sometimes find in certain Starbucks shops.
This is actually a cookbook from the people behind the Nomiku WiFi sous vide machine (which has since been discontinued), but the recipes in it will work with any sous vide device. Not only does it have beautiful photographs, but it also offers fantastic recipes like jerk chicken wings, duck confit and chocolate pots du creme.
Other noteworthy recipes:
Sous vide alternatives
Instant Pot / Best Buy
(Instant Pot / Best Buy)
Aside from immersion circulators like the ones mentioned here, you could also opt for multi-purpose appliances that offer sous vide-like functions. Several Instant Pots, for example, offer such a feature. Unfortunately, however, they do not circulate the water like the aforementioned immersion circulators, and the temperatures aren’t quite as precise (which is a definite downside if you need something cooked to a specific temperature). But if you don’t really care about that, or you just want to dabble occasionally in sous vide, this might be a viable option.
If you’re dead set on a multi-tasking appliance and you have the money to spend, consider the Anova Precision Oven. Thanks to its use of steam, you can indeed use it to cook foods via sous vide but without the need for plastic bags. It also uses a fan to circulate the moist air around the food and a probe thermometer helps keep foods at a precise temperature. And, of course, the Precision Oven can be used as a regular oven as well, and is great for baking breads and bagels. It is, however, quite expensive at $700 and takes up a lot of counter space.
Images: Will Lipman for Engadget (Anova / holiday light background)
The first thing you say when someone tells you their bad news determines where the rest of the conversation goes—and, sometimes, where the relationship goes. Responding in a less-than-ideal way can prompt your conversation partner to pull back and decide, “‘Well, I’m not going to bring that to you anymore,’” says Jenny Dreizen, an etiquette expert and the Scotland-based co-founder of Fresh Starts Registry, a website that offers dozens of scripts in order to provide words for moments that leave you at a loss. “We all get blank-page syndrome,” she says. “None of us know how to do this.”
With that in mind, we asked Dreizen and other experts to share their favorite ways to respond to someone who’s sharing bad news, from the trivial to the unimaginable.
“The disappointment is so real. I’m here to validate that for you.”
Imagine a friend just told you their vacation plans fell through, and they’re crushed. Your gut reaction might be that it’s a minor concern—it’s not life or death, right? “But we don’t dictate what upsets people,” Dreizen says. “And we don’t know what that vacation would mean to somebody.”
That’s why she employs the VASE Method, which helps you present your words to someone as though they’re pretty flowers in a vase, she says. The acronym stands for: validate (recognize that their experience is real and true), acknowledge (show that you understand what they’re going through), support (offer to do what you can to lighten their load), and express (tell them how you feel, emphasizing your pride, love, respect, and compassion). In this case, after validating your friend’s disappointment, you might add: “How can I help you pivot a little? What can we do?” Or, you could offer to reach out to the airline and hotels to cancel reservations. “And then tell them how you feel—‘I love you so much and I know this is a bummer, but I’m here for you,’” Dreizen suggests.
“Please remember to just keep breathing. One breath at a time.”
This response works well when someone you love is going through something unfathomable, like pregnancy loss, Dreizen says. “In those horrible moments, you can really forget that you’re a person who still needs to breathe, who still needs water,” she says. “It seems almost goofy to remind somebody just to breathe, but it’s also reminding them, it’s not just one step in front of another. That’s too much. It’s one breath after the next, just to get through the next millisecond and then the next one.”
“How is this landing for you?”
People often ask Christine MacInnis, a therapist in Torrance, Calif., how she seems to always know the exact right words to say. She believes it’s because when someone shares news about a divorce, job loss, or other setback, she first asks how it’s landing for them. “In order to proceed appropriately with the right words of comfort, you need to know how it feels for them,” she says. “Maybe the divorce is a relief, or their job made them miserable.” She remembers comforting a close friend who had just lost her job—and the woman gave her a strange look and said, “I’m not sad at all! I hated that place. I told you so you could introduce me to your friend who works at XYZ company and I could share my resume.” Even therapists, she jokes, can sometimes read the room wrong, which is why gauging someone’s spirits can be so helpful.
“You are doing such a good job at being strong and brave, and I wish you didn’t have to.”
When our loved ones experience hardship, we naturally want to protect them. That’s why Dreizen likes this line, or a slight variation: “I am so sorry this is part of your story now.” It’s essentially saying, “I know that you’ve got this, but I wish you didn’t have to,” she says. “It’s holding someone in their vulnerability and saying, ‘I see that you’re being strong, but I wish that you could just be vulnerable and soft and lie in a bed.”
“Remember that rejection is a part of life, and it does not define your worth. Keep pushing forward, a better opportunity is waiting for you.”
As a recovering perfectionist, Dreizen understands the heartbreak that can be triggered by losing a dream job or promotion. That’s why it’s important to emphasize that professional rejection usually isn’t personal. “Things like that can feel like they’re about you, and they so rarely are,” she says. You could even send your message of support written in a card, along with flowers or a gift card, she adds—and let the other person know you’re there if they need to vent.
“We will figure this out together.”
When a work-related issue recently popped up for Dreizen, a friend told her: “We will figure this out together.” “I cried because I was like, ‘I didn’t think that was your problem,’” she recalls. “But we are responsible to each other in that capacity—we get to take care of each other. We don’t have to, but we get to, when we build a community.” Showing someone that they’re not alone can greatly bolster their resilience, she adds.
“This is a lot to handle. Would it help if I helped with [specific task]?”
Sometimes people don’t know what they need—or don’t want to ask for it, says Cassandra LeClair, a clinical associate professor of communication at Mays Business School at Texas A&M University, who specializes in communication in relationships. “By offering specific help, you show you’re ready to help,” she points out. Perhaps you could walk your friend’s dog, pick up their groceries, mow their lawn, or assist with an errand. “Make it clear you’re ready and willing, but they’re not obligated to take you up on your offer,” LeClair says. “And if you offer, mean it.”
“I promise you, your story is safe with me, and we can move forward however you’re comfortable, at your pace.”
It’s scary to share something that’s vulnerable, embarrassing, or potentially shameful, Dreizen emphasizes—and then to feel like that story has traveled to husbands or sisters or mothers. So if a friend discloses something serious to you, like abuse, let them know they have your confidence. Make it clear that “their secrets are safe with you, and they’re not going anywhere and aren’t going to be fodder in any capacity,” she says. It’s also important to establish that you’re not going to push them on next steps or ask for more details than they’re ready to reveal. “We want to empower the sharer to know that, ‘I’m not going to decide what this means for you,’” Dreizen says. “I’m just here to support you and love you in this moment.”
“I’ll check in with you from time to time to let you know I’m thinking about you. You don’t need to respond; I just want you to know that I’m here for you.”
When Shari Leid was diagnosed with breast cancer, the comments that rolled in ranged from supportive to insensitive. People told her she was a warrior and that she’d fight the disease—both of which were meant to be encouraging but “felt empty.” Others—“Well, you get a free boob job” and “At least they caught it early”—struck her as dismissive.
The most meaningful support came from simple, thoughtful check-ins, rather than assumptions about her strength or prognosis, says Leid, a mindset coach in Seattle who’s the host of the podcast Life Unscripted. It was also non-intrusive. Next time someone you love is going through a hard time, let them know you plan to check in, she advises—but remove any pressure to respond, so that they have one less thing to worry about if they’re not up for a conversation.
It’s important to encourage authenticity, whether you’re talking to someone who’s going through a divorce, grappling with a scary diagnosis, or dealing with an entirely different set of unfortunate news. That’s why Leid likes reminding people that it’s OK to have tough days, and that she’s there to support them without judgment. While it’s fine to send this note via text, calling or video-chatting can help you “see or hear your loved one’s voice,” she says. That way, you have a more accurate sense of how they’re processing the situation—and can follow-up accordingly.
Through the ages, humans have fueled their most physically demanding efforts with meaty proteins. Ancient Greeks loaded up on red meat before Olympic contests, and medieval knights recovered from war with venison and pork. The tradition continues today, with world-record-setting weightlifters breakfasting on chicken thighs, eggs, and bacon.
But experts recommend that the modern, average person eat several other foods before and after tough workouts, even if the knights may have tossed them from their castle windows.
The missing ingredients
During exercise, blood carries the nutrients we’ve consumed to our strained muscles, where they’re absorbed. “We are what we eat,” says Keith Baar, a molecular exercise physiologist at the University of California, Davis. “And when we exercise, we’re more of what we just ate.” With proper nourishment, our muscles perform better, exercise feels easier, and we recover faster.
The ancients weren’t exactly wrong about protein. It’s critical in forming the building blocks of muscle tissues during exercise and afterward, when the fibers are beaten up and need repairs. But many athletes and weekend warriors focus too much on protein, says David Nieman, who leads research on exercise and nutrition at Appalachian State University’s Human Performance Lab. “Unfortunately, a lot of people still act like protein is everything,” he says.
Carbohydrates matter just as much, especially for cardio workouts. (And high-fiber carbs, in particular, tend to support long-term health compared to carbs with fewer nutrients.) “We’ve known since the 1960s that the muscles want carbs,” Nieman says. After we eat carbs, they’re converted into something called glycogen, which is stored in muscles until it’s needed for energy. “The research is so strong, you’d be foolish not to use it,” Nieman adds.
But the best exercise fuel you’re not eating may be fruits, nuts, dark greens, and other plants. They’re full of essential nutrients like folate, magnesium, and vitamins A, D, and E, which can reduce stress and inflammation from exercise. Yet most Americans don’t get enough. “Over 90% of our recommendations for many people come down to eating more whole plant-based foods,” Nieman says. For light exercisers, “everything else is minor.”
For people who are just trying to meet the minimum exercise recommendations of 150 minutes per week, try to follow the baseline, daily recommendations for vegetables, protein, and carbs. It doesn’t really matter whether you eat them before or after your workout, experts agree.
For more intensive exercise, though, you’ll want to adjust nutrition before and after—or your workout could involve more rigor than vigor.
Before your workout
Power up with nuts and berries
You may be surprised to find a ream of sports nutrition research pointing to a humble bowl of blueberries and almonds. Many ancient warriors overlooked these foods, but they offer an unusually high variety of polyphenols, compounds found in plant-based foods that reduce inflammation from prolonged workouts.
Blueberries, especially wild ones that you can find frozen, have this effect in competitive cyclists and untrained athletes alike. Their polyphenols are antioxidants, meaning they counter harmful molecules caused by inflammation during exercise—like firefighters putting out flames. This speeds up the recovery process. Jenna Stangland, team dietitian for the Minnesota Timberwolves, infuses the NBA players’ diets with polyphenols, she says; the Timberwolves’ second-best regular season in franchise history was powered by blueberry vinaigrettes, added recently to the team’s salad station. (Stangland is also an advisor to Momentous, a supplement company.)
Nieman also has found that snacking on about 40 almonds per day for four weeks before heavy exercise contributed to less muscle damage. In a study this year, people who ate almonds for two weeks weren’t as sore after running 30 minutes downhill. Because almonds are high in calories, stay very active when upping your intake.
Decades of research support the general health benefits of polyphenols, but their role in exercise is a recent discovery. “They’re the future of sports nutrition,” Nieman says.
Eat a slice of sourdough two hours before
For tough exercise, increase your intake of carbs above the minimum guidelines. Swimmer Michael Phelps set a world record after having three slices of sugar-covered French toast (plus a five-egg omelet). However, Phelps isn’t your average human. Healthier sources of carbs are chickpeas, lentils, and sourdough bread. They take longer to digest, providing a slow, steady release of energy to fuel exercise later in the day. Aim to have these types of carbs about two hours before working out, says Elaine Lee, a kinesiologist who directs the University of Connecticut’s Human Performance Laboratory.
Eat a banana immediately before
Carbs with more sugar and less fiber, such as bananas, get broken down faster. If you time them just before or during your sweat session, the body can use them right away. (Bananas, a high-carb, polyphenol-rich fruit, promote recovery as well as sports drinks according to Nieman’s research.)
Stangland likes honey for her players because it contains the right mix of simple sugars for energy. “I give out honey sticks right before tipoff and at halftime,” she says. Eating these foods too early, by contrast, “can cause blood sugar to crash before exercise,” Baar says. “Then your performance will be very poor.”
Sate your hunger with eggs
You may benefit from combining pre-workout carbs with protein, such as eggs or Greek yogurt. Because protein is more filling than other foods, it overcomes a big obstacle to exercise: hunger. “You’ll feel sated for longer, which can play a role in how you perform,” Baar says.
Vegetarians, worry not; recreational athletes do just as well with plant-based protein compared to meat. Lentils pack ample amounts. “We have some players who prefer plant protein,” says Stangland. Brown rice and pea protein powder is the perfect mix for them, since these two plant powders combined provide all of the amino acids that support exercise.
Consider coffee and collagen an hour before exercise
Research supports only a few pre-workout supplements, found in food, as safe and effective for athletic performance. One is caffeine. Fewer studies point to a protein called collagen for reducing joint pain; mixing it with orange juice, an hour before exercise, may increase absorption. (Stangland makes a pre-game “watermelon collagen shot” for her players, especially the ones who are more prone to tendon injuries.) Amy Bream, an adaptive CrossFit athlete from Nashville, says collagen has helped her back pain. “It’s in my coffee every morning,” she says.
After your workout
Refuel with sweet potatoes 1 to 4 hours after
Post-exercise, it’s key to start replacing the fuel that was exhausted—especially the glycogen—to prepare for future workouts. Lee, who coached and rowed at the NCAA division 1 level, recommends combining high-fiber carbs, protein, dark greens, and hydration within 1 to 4 hours after exercise, saying, “That’s when your tissues are most metabolically active.” Sweet potatoes are ideal as the carb portion, offering plenty of fiber and nutrients such as polyphenols and electrolytes, good for rehydration. Stangland serves the Timberwolves sweet potatoes at least twice per day. “It’s great for them, and they like them—a win-win,” says Stangland.
If you’re older, have protein immediately after
Protein can be enjoyed when convenient throughout the day. Scientists used to think you had to eat it right after the gym to gain muscle, but recent studies find that the timing makes little or no difference in healthy younger people. Seniors benefit more from protein immediately following exercise, Baar says, because their bodies target it better to the muscles at this time. Another strategy that helps with protein absorption: chewing food thoroughly and opting for ground meats instead of steaks, Baar says.
Don’t overdo it with the vitamins
It’s possible to get too many antioxidants, including vitamins. If consumed post-workout, they could block the benefits of exercise. Studies show that athletes supplementing with excess vitamins C and E have more inflammation and molecular stress during their recoveries. But that’s no reason to skip your veggies. It’s next-to-impossible to reach this threshold from food alone, experts say.
Many studies do support taking a post-workout supplement called creatine, based on a natural compound in muscle cells. Taken daily, it boosts recovery and performance in weightlifting and high-intensity interval training.
Experiment with recovery shakes and other combinations
“We don’t yet have a magic shake” for exercise recovery, Lee says. “Everyone has a different tolerance for what they can eat and how much.”
But you can test one dietary change at a time to see how it affects your performance and recovery. Maybe try having a post-workout, polyphenol-rich bowl of almonds, blueberries, and greens—an AB&G instead of a PB&J—each day to see if it improves your exercise over two weeks. If you measure your heart rate during and after exercise, keep track of the answers to questions like: can you push your heart rate higher than before the change? Or achieve the same workout at a lower heart rate? Afterward, does your heart rate return to normal faster than usual?
Stangland makes a different recovery shake for every player on the team, with extra carbs for Edwards’s all-out performances, for instance. Like all of nutrition science, ultimately “it’s a customization,” Lee says. “You have to find what works for you.”
Recently, I was catching up with a friend who’d just given birth to her first baby. I thought about all of the changes I’d experienced since having my 1- and 3-year-old daughters. “I feel like I’m a completely different person,” I said.
As soon as the phrase came out of my mouth, I questioned it. Nearly 2 billion people in the world are mothers. Surely they didn’t all feel completely different after giving birth. Or did they?
Most people are familiar with the term “mommy brain,” a phrase that describes the brain fog and forgetfulness that many pregnant women and new moms experience. But it turns out there’s way more going on than just forgetting the name of your college professor, and it’s something called matrescence.
Coined by medical anthropologist Dana Raphael in 1973, matrescence is, quite simply, the process of becoming a mother. It’s an immense physical, psychological, emotional, and social shift—and one that’s far more intense than most people realize.
“When I was pregnant with my first child, I thought pregnancy was a one-time, transient hormonal event, and that when [my daughter] was born, I would just go back to myself,” says Lucy Jones, a journalist and author of Matrescence: On the Metamorphosis of Pregnancy, Childbirth and Motherhood. “But that’s just not what it is at all. It’s actually the most dramatic, seismic, endocrinological, and neurobiological experience you can have in adult life.”
Major changes are at play
Although it’s common knowledge that women undergo massive hormonal shifts on their way to becoming a mom, there’s been a lack of research into new moms’ brains until very recently. But several groundbreaking neuroscience studies have been published in the past few years, Jones says. One showed that pregnancy leads to significant structural and functional changes in the brain, while another demonstrated alterations to gray matter in certain areas of pregnant womens’ brains. (Interestingly, these changes persisted for years after childbirth.)
Countless other changes are happening too, though they’re harder to quantify. Ask any new mom if she feels like some of her relationships with family and friends have changed since having kids, and she’ll likely say yes. There are also pronounced physical changes—like embracing new postpartum bodies that function differently, whether that means pelvic floor problems, hair loss, or weakened abdominal muscles. Plus, there are emotional changes, like a newfound and fierce protectiveness over our children.
During the early postpartum period, there’s an immense learning curve. Although this phase can feel overwhelming, one study suggests that if the cognitive challenges present during this time are continued across someone’s lifespan (meaning someone is actively parenting for many years), it can actually be beneficial for brain health later in life. “What we know about the brain is that novelty and complexity and cognitive challenge are very stimulating,” says study author Edwina Orchard, a postdoctoral research associate at the Yale Child Study Center at Yale University. In other research, Orchard has even shown that the more children someone has parented, the younger their brain looks—and that middle-aged parents actually have quicker response times and better visual memories than their childless counterparts.
That suggests a neuroprotective effect of parenthood on brain age. Other research has shown moms’ brains change to varying degrees, says Orchard, who also works at the Before and After Baby Lab, a research group at Yale. “Mothers who experience more pronounced changes also show more sensitive caregiving behaviors,” she says. “They have better attachment or more positive feelings about their child.”
Stronger than before
“Mommy brain” is a real thing, particularly when it comes to word recall and memory. But the idea that new moms undergo some sort of early onset dementia during matrescence is misguided, says Abigail Tucker, author of Mom Genes: Inside the New Science of Our Ancient Maternal Instinct.
Experts believe the cognitive deficit many pregnant women and new moms face when they forget someone’s name or put the cereal in the fridge could very well be the result of sleep deprivation, Tucker says. Or, it could simply be from the shift in focus that new moms are experiencing.
“All of a sudden, the new mother’s thoughts revolve around a tiny person who didn’t exist a few months or even minutes ago, and everything else falls by the wayside,” Tucker says. “Perhaps there is temporarily less brain power left over for other stuff that suddenly seems so much less important, like remembering to mail a letter.”
I was definitely sleep-deprived, forgetful and absentminded during pregnancy and the early postpartum period. (My older daughter used to ask me why I was spacing out so much). But I had this innate sense that I’d also become mentally sharper in many ways. It turns out I was onto something.
Research has shown pregnant women and new moms are better at facial recognition and reading peoples’ emotions, Tucker says. They’re more alert and even better at identifying colors and scents, possibly to detect potentially harmful foods. They can also be surprisingly calm in stressful situations: One research study found that women late in pregnancy rated an earthquake in California as less stressful than other survivors.
All parents—not just moms—undergo a neural transition
Moms aren’t the only ones who experience a major identity shift when they become parents.
“Science is showing that, particularly with hands-on, affectionate care, spending time with a child affects a father or a non-biological parent’s hormone levels, shape of the brain, anatomy of the brain, and response to the baby,” Jones says.
One study found the degree to which a new father’s testosterone and cortisol levels changed when his baby was born could predict how involved he’d be with his child later on. Another study found that very involved dads experienced more activation in the amygdala, the area of the brain responsible for decision-making, instinct, and the fight-or-flight response. One study also suggested foster mothers experience similar oxytocin changes as gestational mothers when bonding with their babies.
Increased awareness
Experts believe matrescence is as significant of a transition as adolescence. Yet the term matrescence (which doesn’t even appear in the Merriam-Webster dictionary) still hasn’t gained much traction in the 50 years since it was coined.
“Everyone knows adolescents are uncomfortable and awkward because they are going through extreme mental and bodily changes,” Jones writes in Matrescence. “But, when they have a baby, women are expected to transition with ease—to breeze into a completely new self, a new role, at one of the most perilous and sensitive times in the life course.”
More research on matrescence is being done each year. Historically, perinatal mental-health researchers thought it was important to study moms for the sake of their babies, says Sheehan Fisher, a perinatal clinical psychologist at Northwestern Medicine. “Now, we’ve shifted so that moms’ mental health matters in and of itself.”
More awareness about the changes women go through during this time can be beneficial on both an individual and societal level. Perinatal mental health conditions are common—one in five women experience one during this vulnerable time—plus the majority of new moms in the U.S. still don’t have access to paid maternity leave.
“I think our understanding of this as a sensitive period should be positioned as strongly as possible to encourage governments to federally mandate paid parental leave for all new parents, not just birthing parents,” Orchard says. “Not just as a physical recovery from birth, but as an acknowledgement of the huge environmental and behavioral identity shifts that are happening through this time.”
Gina Moffa’s fear of flying took off early. When she was 10, her mother—overwhelmed by bad turbulence on a flight to Italy—clambered to the emergency exit and tried to get out of the plane. A fellow passenger offered her Valium, and a nun onboard prayed the Rosary with her. “And then she was OK,” says Moffa, now a grief therapist based in New York City. “But it taught me there was something to be afraid of.”
That hasn’t lessened over the years. Moffa recently returned from a “precarious adventure” to the Portuguese island Madeira that involved flying in a tiny 12-seater plane for nearly three hours over the Atlantic. She almost didn’t board. “They were like, ‘Ma’am, you’re going to make us late—we have to get on before the winds come,’” she recalls.
But the truth remains: Flying is safe. Even now. According to the National Safety Council, the lifetime odds of dying on a plane in the U.S. are “too small to calculate.” That’s part of the reason Moffa hasn’t allowed herself to be grounded. On her recent rickety flight, “I was terrified to the point of palpitations, but I didn’t cause a scene,” she says. “It’s a very common fear, and it can be immobilizing, but you can’t let that fear get in the way of witnessing the beauty in the world.”
We asked experts to share the psychological tricks that help them conquer their flight anxiety.
Check out pilot TikTok
Moffa has learned that she’s able to cope with her fear of flying best if she understands everything about her trip—including what type of plane she’ll be on, the forecast, and expected turbulence. “If I know that I think catastrophic thoughts around flying, which I do, then I can say, ‘OK, so what are the facts?’”
That philosophy led her to the aviation corner of TikTok, where pilots post video explainers of how they prepare for take-off and landing, strategies to avoid thunderstorms, and navigating worst-case issues like engine failure. “They’ll show you what they’re doing in the cockpit, and what the noises are,” Moffa says. “That way if you’re sitting near the wing and you see part of it go down, you’re not like, ‘Wow, we’re going to lose our wing.’ It’s actually just part of what it’s supposed to do to keep you in the air.” Knowledge is power, she says—and, in this case, peace.
Establish some sense of control over your environment
After years of flying without any issues, Los Angeles psychologist Carder Stout developed aerophobia in his 30s. Now, he has an action plan that he shares with his clients and uses himself. Step one: Ensure you feel some sense of control over your environment. That means bringing your own pillow, blanket, and slippers. “I pull down the window shades in my aisle, or ask the other passengers to do so,” he says. (No one has declined the request yet.) During take off, he puts on Pink Floyd, closes his eyes, and visualizes a peaceful, tranquil, and safe place that he’s visited before. That image, he says, helps calm his jittery nerves.
Journal positive phrases
Once the plane levels off and is cruising through the air, Stout starts journaling positive phrases. For example: “I’m going to be fine. I’m safe. Planes aren’t so bad, after all.” They become his mantras for the flight, he says, anchors he can return to whenever he needs to settle back down. If the plane suddenly feels like it’s falling, or turbulence jolts you out of your seat, repeat after him: “I am going to be fine.”
Try the Havening Technique
When Dr. Christine Gibson, a family doctor and trauma therapist in Calgary, Canada, treats people with specific anxieties, she focuses on teaching them that they have control over their own body. “We can slow our heart rate down,” she says, and let our sympathetic nervous system know there’s nothing to fear. “We’re not just a giant reflex. We can consciously say to our mind-body system, ‘You’re OK. You’re safe right now, even though your brain is trying to tell you you’re in danger.’”
One way to do that is through the Havening Technique, which aims to shift emotions; its name is a nod to finding a safe space, or a “haven.” It involves using one hand to gently brush your palms, shoulders, and face in an up-and-down motion. Start by lightly rubbing your right hand across the palm of your opposite hand, then gently stroking from your shoulder down to your elbow, and across your forehead and cheekbones. You might rub both arms at once, for example, which mimics hugging yourself. After a few repetitions, you should feel calmer, Gibson says.
Practice tapping
Another one of Gibson’s favorite ways to calm down is the Emotional Freedom Technique, also known as “tapping.” It derives from traditional Chinese medicine, and she likes to think of it as self-acupuncture. First, you’ll need a “set-up statement,” which Gibson suggests might sound like this: “Even though there is anxiety when I think about flying, and I’m noticing my heart’s pounding right now, I’m actually safe.” Repeat that as you use two fingers to tap on the acupressure points on your body that are associated with stress relief. Among them: the top of your head, the spot between your eyebrows, the middle of the cheekbones, and the spot between the nose and the lip.
You can subtly practice tapping while you’re in your airplane seat, Gibson points out. “If you have anxiety and it’s like an eight out of 10, and it’s causing you a lot of distress, you do tapping over and over again until the distress is at a three,” she says. “It’s still there, but it’s shrunk and not really bothering you.”
Consider exposure therapy
If you can’t shake your fear of flying, it might be time to enlist a therapist who specializes in treating phobias. Exposure therapy can be highly effective, says psychologist Shmaya Krinsky, founder of Anxiety and Behavioral Health Psychotherapy, which provides telehealth in New York and New Jersey. It involves systematically and gradually “exposing people to the source of their fear in a safe and controlled environment,” he says. With one technique, for example—called imaginal exposure—you might be asked to visualize the process of going to the airport, boarding the plane, and experiencing a bad bout of turbulence. Another technique, in vivo exposure, forces you to directly face the object of your fear; perhaps climbing onto a stationary plane. Virtual reality can also play a helpful role in exposure therapy, Krinsky points out. It might be a bumpy ride, but after a few months, you’ll arrive at the other side—no fear-of-flying baggage in tow.
Hans Von Ohain and Nora Bass (Photo via lawsuit filed by MLG Attorneys at Law)
Tesla’s advanced Autopilot driving system malfunctioned and caused one of the electric car maker’s Colorado employees to drive off the road and die in a fiery crash, a newly filed wrongful death lawsuit alleges.
The widow of Hans Von Ohain says her husband was driving back from golfing in Evergreen with a friend on May 16, 2022, when the Autopilot system “unexpectedly caused the 2021 Tesla Model 3 to sharply veer to the right, leading it off the pavement” on Upper Bear Creek Road.
The 33-year-old Von Ohain, who was intoxicated, fought to regain control of the vehicle, “but, to his surprise and horror,” the car drove off the road and into a tree, where it burst into flames, according to the 16-page complaint filed May 3 in Clear Creek County District Court.
The Colorado State Patrol said in its 403-page crash report that the car’s condition after the crash made it impossible to access data to determine whether the self-driving feature was engaged at the time.
But the passenger in the car, Erik Rossiter, who suffered injuries in the crash, told investigators that Von Ohain was using the autonomous drive feature on the trip home, according to the CSP’s final report.
“It was uncomfortable,” he told troopers. “The car would swerve off toward the side of the road periodically and bring itself back.”
The vehicle was traveling 41 mph at the time of the crash, just above the 40 mph speed limit, according to the CSP report.
Von Ohain also used the self-driving feature on the way to the golf course, Rossiter said — a trip he called “a bit nerve-wracking.”
An autopsy report showed the driver’s blood-alcohol level at three times the legal limit. His widow, Nora Bass, told the Washington Post in February that she had been unable to find an attorney to take the case due to his intoxication.
“Regardless of how drunk Hans was, (Tesla CEO Elon) Musk has claimed that this car can drive itself and is essentially better than a human,” Bass told the newspaper. “We were sold a false sense of security.”
Efforts by The Denver Post to reach Bass or her attorney were unsuccessful.
If Von Ohain was, in fact, using the Full Self-Driving feature, it would make his death the first known fatality involving Tesla’s most advanced driver-assistance technology, the Washington Post reported.
Bass and her attorneys allege Tesla knowingly released the self-driving system in vehicles when it was just a prototype and unready for consumers.
Tesla did not respond to messages from The Post seeking comment. Von Ohain worked for the Texas-based carmaker as a recruiter.
Federal regulators have logged more than 900 crashes in Teslas since they began requiring automakers to report accidents in 2021 involving driver-assistance systems, the Washington Post found. At least 40 resulted in serious or fatal injuries.
Tesla’s Autopilot system has been highly controversial and subject to intense scrutiny from authorities and consumers.
In December, the company issued a recall for nearly all of its 2 million U.S. cars aimed at improving driver attention.
Two years ago, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration found that the Tesla Autopilot’s features may not have sufficient guardrails to “prevent driver misuse.” The federal probe came after a series of Teslas using the system had run into parked emergency vehicles.
Reuters on Wednesday reported U.S. prosecutors are looking into whether Tesla committed securities or wire fraud by misleading consumers and investors about the technology’s capabilities.
I’ve spent my whole life happily walking in one direction: forward. It was, I believed, the only way to go, so I dutifully logged dozens of miles a month looking like every other person out for a morning stroll.
No more. Thanks to TikTok, I discovered a new (to me, at least) spin on walking: backward walking, also known as “retro-walking.” Though it’s trending onsocial-media platforms right now, physical therapists and fitness trainers have been touting its benefits for years. It’s a low-impact way to burn calories, strengthen your legs, test your coordination, and even improve pain, experts say—all of which lured me onto my quiet, rural street one afternoon to give it a whirl.
After about 50 steps, I realized going in reverse was no walk in the park. It burned. I could feel the switch-up in my lower legs in a way I don’t with ordinary walking unless I’m powering up a hill. There was a mental challenge, too (beyond ignoring the strange looks from my neighbors). I had no idea what was behind me, so I had to engage all my senses to ensure I stayed upright and didn’t trip over any unexpected obstacles—including my walking partner, who was slightly faster and, therefore, a couple steps behind me.
When I told a handful of experts about my surprisingly fun retro-walking expedition, they agreed more people should make it part of their routine. Here’s a look at why.
It’s great for older people
Backward walking is an underrated way to engage your glutes, shins, and the muscles in your feet and ankles, says Joe Meier, a Minnesota-based personal trainer and author of Lift for Life. Plus, it mitigates the impact of each step, reducing the force exerted on the knees and lower back. Part of its appeal, he adds, is that it’s so accessible—and suitable for people of any age and fitness level.
Meier has noticed that older people, in particular, are drawn to backward walking as a no-frills way to spice up their fitness routine. “If you look around a gym that has tons of treadmills, you’ll see at least one or two people walking backward at any given time,” Meier says. “There are always older individuals walking backward on the ground, too, and you can tell someone has told them, ‘Hey, you should try doing this because it’s great for your balance and coordination—just don’t trip over anything.’” He points out that many pickleball players have adopted the practice: It can help strengthen their knees and ensure they don’t take a (metaphorical) step back on the courts.
You’ll engage different muscles
Walking backward requires you to stand up straighter than you do when walking forward, Meier says. By reversing your stride, you’ll create a new challenge for the muscles in the abdomen, lower limbs, and back. “You might notice your glute muscles—your big butt muscles—are doing more work,” Meier says. (Author’s note: You’ll definitely notice.) Meanwhile, your calf muscles will need to work opposite of how they usually do. When you walk forward, your calf contracts concentrically, which means the muscle gets shorter, he explains. When you’re going in reverse, your calf muscle contracts the opposite way and gets longer as it bears your body weight. That switch-up can be a valuable way to improve your fitness.
You’ll also be targeting the quad muscles on the front of your thighs. According to one study—yes, scientists have studied this—people who walked backward three times a week for six weeks ended up with improved quadriceps muscle strength, compared to those who walked forward for their exercise. The quads are responsible for knee extension and straightening your leg, Meier explains—so they, too, work differently when you’re walking backward. “That’s one of the reasons why people say it helps their knee pain improve,” he says. “You’re essentially strengthening your quads by doing this backward walking trick.”
It can be good for people with injuries
When New York City-based Peloton Tread instructor Marcel Dinkins had patella issues, she took up backward walking. She returned to it recently after tearing her ACL. “You get to push off,” she says, describing the motion required to launch into walking in reverse. “When you have running or knee issues, you usually have a little pain right underneath your patella. Running backward gives you some respite and relief.”’
Retro-walking has a long history of being used in a clinical or rehabilitation sense, says Janet Dufek, a biomechanist and professor in the School of Integrated Health Sciences at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas, who has researched backward walking. One study, for example, found that after a six-week retro-walking program, participants with osteoarthritis in the knee experienced greater reduction in pain and functional disability compared to those who walked in the typical way. Another found that backward walking down a steep slope alleviated symptoms of plantar fasciitis. And in a study led by Dufek, walking backward reduced lower back pain and enhanced function among athletes.
Retro-walking is also used in occupational therapy. Older people might practice walking up to a kitchen sink, for example, and then walking backward away from it. The ability to move in reverse can enhance “practical activities of daily living,” Dufek says.
It could make you more flexible
Many of us sit all day long—which leads to coiled-up, restricted muscles. “Our hip flexors, or the muscles at the front of the thigh and the front of the hip, get tighter,” says Kristyn Holc, a physical therapist with Atlantic Sports Health Physical Therapy in Morristown, N.J. When we walk backward, we’re stretching that tissue—leading to greater flexibility, which is linked to improved physical performance, increased muscle blood flow, and a reduced risk of injuries. “You’ll notice a lot of people, especially as they get older, hinge at the hips—they get a little bit of a bend there,” she says. “That’s because their hip flexors are tight. So if we can stretch those out, it helps us be able to get that upright posture.”
Your gait and balance might improve
Elizabeth Stroot, a physical therapist with Core Wellness & Physical Therapy in Alexandria, Va., uses retro-walking to help people normalize their gait pattern, or how they walk. “It’s a way to tap into our neuromuscular programming and get people to work through a little limp or a range-of-motion restriction,” she says. Walking backward for just 20 or 30 feet at a time is often enough to help some patients, she adds.
It can also improve balance control, especially among older adults, who are at a higher risk of falls. That’s because we maintain our balance through three big systems, Holc says: our eyes, our muscles and joints, and the vestibular system, or inner ear. When we walk backward, we can’t see what’s behind us, which means we have to rely on the other two systems instead, sharpening their ability to keep us upright. “You’re having to feel where you are in space, and that information is being sent to the brain,” she says.
But you need to do it safely
Many people experiment with retro-walking on their treadmill, which is free of hazards like rocks, uneven ground, and other people. You don’t even have to turn it on, Dinkins points out: Simply step onto the machine backward, grasp the handrails, and use your own power to move the belt. “If you’re pushing it, you’re going to get more of that resistance,” she says—leading to a better workout. If you do decide to turn on the treadmill, start at a low speed and keep the safety key clipped to you at all times, Dinkins advises.
No treadmill? No problem: Choose a safe spot indoors or outside, like a hallway, walking track, or empty field. Dufek encourages people to partner up: “Two people face each other and hold hands, and one of them walks backward while the other one’s walking forward,” she says. “That person can be the eyes for the other one, so it’s very safe, and then you just switch places.”
No matter where you start backward walking, keep in mind that you won’t go as fast backward as you do going forward. There’s a learning curve, Dufek stresses: “If you can walk 4 miles per hour forward, don’t expect to be able to walk that fast backward,” she says. “At least initially, if you can walk 1 mile per hour backward, you’re in a good place.” As with any new exercise, ease in gradually. You might walk backward for 5 or 10 minutes three times a week, and then after a few weeks, add 5 more minutes to each session, Dufek suggests. “As your body neurologically learns the movement pattern, you’ll be able to walk faster,” she says. “And of course, walking faster burns more calories, and then you can be out in public and get laughed out for even longer. It’s fun.” How’s that for forward progress?
When we’re logging into our online accounts, it’s usually with a purpose. We want to get in as quickly as possible to scroll social media or check a bank statement without interruption. It’s easy to become impatient and let login security slip by using the same passwords for everything — think the usual suspects like streets you’ve lived on or your kids’ or pets’ names. But that’s a security nightmare: With just one leak, a malicious actor can access some of your most sensitive accounts. Password managers help mitigate this threat by giving you an easy way to store and develop unique, strong passwords for every account. Yet, these services are not all built the same. We tested out nine of the best password managers available now to help you choose the right one for your needs. 1Password remains our top pick for the best password manager, thanks to its zero-knowledge policy, numerous security features and general ease of use, but there are other solid programs out there to consider as well.
How do password managers work?
Think of password managers like virtual safe deposit boxes. They hold your valuables, in this case usually online credentials, in a section of the vault only accessible to you by security key or a master password. Most of these services have autofill features that make it convenient to log in to any site without needing to remember every password you have, and they keep your credit card information close for impulse purchases.
But given that passwords are one of the top ways to keep your online identity secure, the real value of password managers is staying safe online. “It’s just not possible without a password manager to have unique, long and hard-to-guess passwords,” Florian Schaub, an associate professor of information and of electrical engineering and computer science at the University of Michigan, said.
Common guidance states that secure passwords should be unique, with the longest number of characters allowed and uppercase letters, lowercase letters, numbers and special characters. This is the exact opposite of using one password everywhere, with minor variations depending on a site’s requirements. Think of how many online accounts and sites you have credentials for — it’s an impossible task to remember it all without somewhere to store passwords safely (no, a sticky note on your desk won’t cut it). Password managers are more readily accessible and offer the benefit of filling in those long passwords for you.
Are password managers safe?
It seems counterintuitive to store all your sensitive information in one place. One hack could mean you lose it all to an attacker and struggle for months or even years to rebuild your online presence, not to mention you may have to cancel credit cards and other accounts. But most experts in the field agree that password managers are a generally secure and safe way to keep track of your personal data, and the benefits of strong, complex passwords outweigh the possible risks.
The mechanics of keeping those passwords safe differs slightly from provider to provider. Generally, you have a lengthy, complex “master password” that safeguards the rest of your information. In some cases, you might also get a “security key” to enter when you log in to new devices. This is a random string of letters, numbers and symbols that the company will send you at sign up. Only you know this key, and because it’s stored locally on your device or printed out on paper, it’s harder for hackers to find.
These multiple layers of security make it difficult for an attacker to get into your vault even if your password manager provider experiences a breach. But the company should also follow a few security basics. A “zero-knowledge” policy means that the company keeps none of your data on file, so in the event of an attack, there’s nothing for hackers to find. Regular health reports like pentests and security audits are essential for keeping companies up to par on best practices, and other efforts like bug bounty programs or hosting on an open source website encourage constant vigilance for security flaws. Most password managers now also offer some level of encryption falling under the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES). AES 256-bit is the strongest, because there are the most number of possible combinations, but AES 128-bit or 192-bit are still good.
Who are password managers for?
Given their universal benefit, pretty much everyone could use a password manager. They’re not just for the tech-savvy people or businesses anymore because so much sensitive information ends up online behind passwords, from our bank accounts to our Netflix watch history.
That’s the other perk of password managers: safe password sharing. Families, friends or roommates can use them to safely access joint accounts. Texting a password to someone isn’t secure, and you can help your family break the habit by starting to use one yourself, Lisa Plaggemier, executive director at National Cyber Security Alliance, said. Streaming is the obvious use case, but consider the shared bills, file storage and other sites you share access with the people around you as well.
Are password managers worth it?
You likely already use a password manager, even if you wouldn’t think to call it that. Most phones and web browsers include a log of saved credentials on the device, like the “passwords” keychain in the settings of an iPhone. That means you’ve probably seen the benefits of not having to memorize a large number of passwords or even type them out already.
While that’s a great way in, the downfall of these built-in options are that they tend to be device specific. If you rely on an Apple password manager, for example, that works if you’re totally in the Apple ecosystem — but you become limited once you get an Android tablet, Lujo Bauer, professor of electrical and computer engineering, and of computer science, at Carnegie Mellon University, said. If you use different devices for work and personal use and want a secure option for sharing passwords with others, or just don’t want to be tied to one brand forever, a third-party password manager is usually worth it.
How we tested
We tested password managers by downloading the apps for each of the nine contenders on iPhone, Android, Safari, Chrome and Firefox. That helped us better understand what platforms each manager was available on, and see how support differs across operating systems and browsers.
As we got set up with each, we took note of ease of use and how they iterated on the basic features of autofill and password generators. Nearly all password managers have these features, but some place limits on how much you can store while others give more control over creating easy-to-type yet complex passwords. From there, we looked at extra features like data-breach monitoring to understand which managers offered the most for your money.
Finally, we reviewed publicly available information about security specs for each. This includes LastPass, which more experts are shying away from recommending after the recent breach. For the sake of this review, we’ve decided not to recommend LastPass at this time as fallout from the breach still comes to light (The company disclosed a second incident earlier this year where an unauthorized attack accessed the company’s cloud storage, including sensitive data. Since then, hackers have stolen more than $4.4 million in cryptocurrency using private keys and other information stored in LastPass vaults.)
These are the password managers we tested:
1Password
Number of tiers: 4 | Pricing: $3/month for Individual, $5/month for Families, $20/month for Teams Starter Pack, $8/month per user for Business | Compatibility: macOS, iOS, Windows, Android, Linux, Chrome, Firefox, Safari, Brave, Edge, Command Line
Many security experts trust 1Password with their private information and, after testing it out, it’s clear why. The service includes industry standard encryption, a “secret key” that only you know on top of your master password, a zero-knowledge policy that means it keeps no data, and other security features like frequent audits, two-factor authentication and a bug bounty program. That said, 1Password did fall victim to a recent cybersecurity incident that’s worth noting. 1Password detected suspicious activity on its Okta instance, but an investigation “concluded that no 1Password user data was accessed.” 1Password now also supports passkeys, which are credentials stored in your most used devices that are protected by biometric authentication (like fingerprints or facial recognition) or PINs.
1Password has a pretty intuitive user interface across its mobile and desktop apps. A tutorial at download helps you import passwords from other managers onto 1Password so that you don’t feel like you’re starting over from scratch. It also clearly rates the strength of each password and has an “open and fill” option in the vault so that you can get into your desired site even more quickly. We also liked the user-friendly option to scan a set up code to easily connect your account to your mobile devices without too much tedious typing.
At $3 per month, the individual subscription comes with unlimited passwords, items and one gigabyte of document storage for your vault. It also lets you share passwords, credit card information and other saved credentials. If you upgrade to the family plan for $5 each month, you’ll get to invite up to five people (plus more for $1 each per month) to be a part of the vault.
Number of tiers: 3 | Pricing: Free, $3/month per user for Teams Organization, $5/month per user for Enterprise Organization | Compatibility: macOS, iOS, Windows, Android, Linux, Chrome, Firefox, Safari, Brave, Edge, Vivaldi, Opera, Tor, DuckDuckGo for Mac, Command Line
Bitwarden’s free plan includes unlimited passwords on an unlimited number of devices, which is more than we’ve seen from some of its competitors. There are drawbacks like you can only share vault items with one other user, but we think that’s a fair tradeoff.
Bitwarden is based on open-source code, meaning anyone on GitHub can audit it, which is a good measure of security. On a personal level, it includes security audits of your information, like a data breach report, that can keep you in the know about when your passwords have been leaked and when it’s time to change them. Plus, it’s widely available across the platforms we tested, including Windows and iOS, with a level of customization, options to access your password vault and more. It also recently added passkeys to its vault and two-factor authentication options as a secure way to sign in.
Bitwarden may be the best free password manager, but it does have a paid version and we do think it’s worth it. At $10 annually for individuals or $40 for families, you unlock encrypted file storage, emergency access, unlimited sharing and more additional features. But the free version comes with the basics that can get anyone set up on password management easily.
Pros
Robust free version
Based on open-source code
Available across a wide variety of platforms
Cons
Free version can only share a vault with one other user
Number of tiers: 3 | Pricing: Free, $2/per month for Premium, $4/month for Family | Compatibility: macOS, iOS, Windows, Android, Linux, Chrome, Firefox, Safari, Opera, Edge
Across password managers we tested, cross-platform availability was relatively similar. Most are widely available across web browsers and different operating systems, including our other top picks on this list. But we wanted to give a nod to NordPass here because of how easy the service makes it to access your vault from any platform while keeping your data safe. NordPass even lets you use biometric data to sign in now, like your fingerprints or face, making it even easier to get into accounts across devices.
NordPass has a free option with unlimited passwords and syncs across devices. A $2-per-month premium plan keeps you logged in when switching devices, comes with security notifications and allows for item sharing. A family subscription comes with six premium accounts and only costs $4 per month. This makes it an excellent budget option as well. Besides the pairing code to connect accounts, NordPass is a pretty standard password manager. Scanning a code gets me from my laptop to mobile device to work computer super easily. If you’re constantly switching devices and those extra few seconds save your sanity, it’s worth considering.
Number of tiers: 4 | Pricing: Free, $3/month for Advanced, $5/month for Premium, $7/month for Friends and Family | Compatibility: macOS, iOS, Android, Chrome, Firefox, Safari, Brave, Edge, Opera
Dashlane has four subscription options: A free user gets access to a single device with unlimited passwords; an advanced user pays $3 per month to get upgraded to unlimited devices and dark web monitoring; for $5 per month, a premium user also gets VPN access and an $7.49-per-month family plan includes access for up to 10 subscribers.
It met all the criteria we looked for, but with a clear emphasis on sharing credentials. Dashlane highlights “secure sharing” starting at its free level, which is a functionality that some competitors keep behind a paywall. Other free features, however, recently took a hit. Dashlane limited the number of passwords users of the free version could store. Access for up to 10 members in a family plan is one of the bigger plans we’ve seen as well. While we were testing it, password sharing seemed front of mind with a tab dedicated to it in Dashlane’s browser extension. Arguably the biggest caveat here, though, is lack of Linux support.
Pros
Easy to securely share information with others
Free version includes robust sharing features
Cons
Free version supports a limited number of passwords
For a while, security experts considered LastPass a solid choice for a password manager. It’s easy to use, has a slew of helpful extra features and its free version gives you a lot. But we decided not to include LastPass in our top picks because of the high profiledata breaches it has experienced over the past couple of years.
Keeper
Keeper met a lot of the basic criteria we tested for, like autofill options and cross-platform availability. We liked its family plan options, too, that can keep your whole household secure. But we didn’t think its extra features, like the encrypted messaging app, added much value. Plus, it has a self-destruct feature after five incorrect login attempts which, despite adding extra protection, could be a recipe for disaster for casual users.
Enpass
Enpass works well as an affordable password manager. That includes an inflation-beating “lifetime” access pass instead of a monthly payment for users really committed to the service. Still, it was confusing to set up across devices and because Enpass stores data locally, as opposed to in the cloud, we struggled to get started with it on mobile.
Norton
A familiar name in security, we were excited to test out Norton’s password manager. While it’s free, its features seem underdeveloped. It lacked password sharing, account recovery and complex form-filing tools that come standard in many of the other password managers we tested.
LogMeOnce
LogMeOnce comes with a wide range of premium tiers, from professional to family, that include different levels of storage and features. But when we tested, it lacked some basic cross-platform availability that other password managers had already, like compatibility with Mac and Safari.
FAQs
Why use a password manager?
Using a password manager can enhance your online security. They store all of your complex passwords and autofill them as needed, so that you can have unique, strong passwords across the web without remembering each of them yourself. In many cases, unique passwords are your first defense against attack, and a reliable manager makes it easier to keep track of them all.
Are password managers 100 percent safe?
Password managers are a secure way to store your credentials. Experts in the field generally agree that the benefits of accessibility when storing complex passwords outweigh the possibility of attack, like what happened with LastPass. But with any service, it can vary from provider to provider. You should look out for zero-knowledge policies, regular security audits, pentests, bug bounty programs and encryption when choosing the right secure password manager for you.
What if I forget my master password?
Forgetting a master password won’t necessarily lock you out for good, but the recovery process varies from provider to provider. Some services give you a “security key” at sign up to enter when you log into new devices. It can also be used to securely recover your account because it’s a random string of keys stored locally that only you have access to. Other services, however, have no way to recover your vault. So creating a master password that you won’t forget is important.
How can I make a good master password?
A good master password should be unique, with the longest number of characters allowed and uppercase letters, lowercase letters, numbers and special characters. Experts often recommended thinking of it like a “passphrase” instead of a “password” to make it easier to remember. For example, you can take a sentence like “My name is Bob Smith” and change it to “Myn@m3isB0b5m!th” to turn it into a secure master password that you won’t forget.
