Category: Home & Garden

Useful and Easily Grown Flowers for Garden and Greenhouse

Tagetes (Tage’tes) are annuals of great decorative value during the summer and autumn months. They are natives of Mexico and South America and belong to the Daisy family, Compositae. The name is said to have been derived from a mythological deity, Tages. These Marigolds are quite distinct from the Pot Marigold or Calendula. See Calendula

The two chief types of Tagetes are the African Marigold, Tagetes erecta, and the French Marigold, Tagetes patula. The former reaches a height of 2-4 ft. and bears large, single or double flowers of orange or yellow coloring; the latter grows from 9 in. to 2 ft. high and the flowers are yellow, or yellow marked with reddish-brown. In recent years hybrids between the African and French varieties have been developed. In addition, two other species of Tagetes are grown in gardens, T. lucida, the Sweet-scented Marigold, and T. tenuifolia (signata).

The African Marigolds are represented by numerous handsome double varieties which bear large, rounded flowers in orange and various shades of yellow, on strong stems. They are extremely useful in garden beds and borders during the summer months. Much effort has been spent in attempting to develop a white-flowered variety and while not yet successful some modern varieties have pale creamy yellow flowers.

In height of plants and form of flowers their is considerable variation and groups of varieties are designated in seedsmens’ catalogs as Carnation Flowered and Chrysanthemum Flowered. There are many other varieties with flowers in a great number of distinct shapes and forms, and some, even, with odorless foliage. If the plants are well grown they will last in bloom until cut down by frost, and provide brilliant masses of color in the garden in autumn. They are useful as cut flowers.

When to Sow Seeds

The African Marigolds may be raised from seeds sown about 6 weeks before the plants are to be planted outdoors, in a greenhouse in which a temperature of 50-55 degrees is maintained. The seeds are sown in pots or flats filled with sifted sandy soil; they are lightly covered with similar soil and the containers are covered with glass and shaded from sunshine. If kept moist, the seeds will germinate in a few days.

When the seedlings are 1-2 in. high, they should be transplanted to flats, 3-4 in. deep, filled with a sandy, loamy compost; they are placed 3 in. apart. They should remain in the flats until it is time to plant them out of doors after danger of frost has passed and the weather is warm and settled. For two or three weeks after transplanting to flats the seedlings should be kept in the greenhouse to assist them to become established quickly. Subsequently, they are grown in a cold frame and, as the time for planting draws near, they are hardened off by ventilating the frame more freely, and finally are fully exposed to the air.

It is also quite practicable to grow African Marigolds by sowing the seeds in the locations where the plants are to remain, but the plants obtained by this method will not bloom quite so early as those raised under glass. The seeds are scattered thinly in a well-prepared seedbed outdoors as soon as danger from frost has passed, and the seedlings are thinned out until they are not less than 10 in. apart.

A location fully exposed to the sunshine must be chosen for the African Marigolds; they are not a success in shady places. It is a mistake to set them in very rich soil, or they will make rank, luxuriant growth at the expense of flower production. They should be planted 12-15 in. apart.

The French Marigolds. The varieties of these vary in height from 6-24 inches. The taller ones are useful for grouping towards the front of flower borders and for the production of cut flowers; the very dwarf ones are commonly used for edging flower beds. There are both double-flowered and single-flowered varieties.

Among the dwarfer varieties Naughty Marietta is popular. It has rich golden-yellow flowers attractively marked with brownish-red. The single flowers of Red Head have a crested center of yellow and maroon and surrounding petals of mahogany, bronze and gold. Sunny has single, bright yellow flowers marked with cerise at the bases of the petals. Ruffled Red has mahogany-red flowers edged with yellow. All these are single-flowered varieties. Of the dwarf double French Marigolds, some of the best are Spry, maroon with bright golden centers; Tangerine, bright tangerine-orange; Lemon Drop, clear lemon-yellow; and Yellow Pygmy, with tiny, light yellow chrysanthemum-like flowers. There are single forms of the tall French Marigolds, but these are not so popular as the dwarf varieties.

French Marigolds require the same general cultural care as that detailed for African Marigolds. They may be started in a greenhouse or raised from seeds sown directly outdoors. If sown directly outdoors the seedlings germinate quickly, provided they are kept moist. They must be thinned out in good time to give them every chance to develop sturdily.

It is a mistake to grow these plants in too rich a soil, for they will make vigorous growth but will not bloom very freely. Neither is it wise to plant them anywhere except in full sunshine, for in shade or partial shade they become very leafy, and their blossoming is disappointing.

African-French Hybrid Marigolds

A race of hybrids between the African and French Marigolds, raised in America in recent years, are named Burpee’s Red and Gold Hybrids. As yet the strain is not fixed and the plants vary in the color of the flowers they produce. Some are solid red, some solid yellow, others various combinations of red and golden-yellow. Flower colors vary on the same plants at different periods during the season. The flowers are double, 2-3 in. in diameter; the plants are bushy and grow about 18 in. tall.

These African-French Hybrid Marigolds require the same culture as their parent types. They bloom throughout the summer and fall and are good cut flowers. Because the strain is not fixed a few true African Marigolds usually appear among the seedlings. Even while they are very small it is easy to segregate these from the hybrids because the African type has green stems whereas those of the hybrids are red. The African Marigolds normally grow taller than the hybrids and should be planted separately.

Other Kind of Tagetes

A Tagetes of very distinct appearance and of great charm and usefulness is T. tenuifolia (signata) pumila. In recent years this has been listed under the name of Dwarf Signet Marigold. It is a native of Mexico and forms a broad, bushy plant 1 ft. or less tall. It has finely divided foliage and bears a multitude of single, golden-orange flowers about 1 in. in diameter, each with but few ray florets.

Tagetes tenuifolia variety pumila requires the same cultural care as the dwarf French Marigolds and, like them, is a splendid subject for planting in groups at the fronts of borders, for bedding and for setting out as edgings to flower beds.

The Sweet-scented Marigold, Tagetes lucida, is an attractive species from Mexico that does not appear to be very much cultivated. It grows about 1 ft. tall, has fragrant foliage and carries its golden or orange-yellow flowers in dense terminal clusters. It requires the same cultural care as the other kinds.

In Greenhouses

All kinds of Tagetes are useful plants for growing in greenhouses for winter and spring display. They are elegant pot plants and are also useful as cut flowers. Some seedsmen offer special winter-flowering varieties which bloom freely even when days are short and light less intense than in the summer.

One of the best of these is called Lieb’s Winter Flowering.

For winter bloom, the seeds should be sown in August or September; for spring bloom, sow them in January. The seedlings should be transplanted to flats, or individually to small pots, and later potted in larger receptacles as needed. Pots measuring 5-7 in. in diameter are satisfactory sizes in which to let the plants flower. Good results may be had by growing either one or three plants in each pot.

The soil for Tagetes grown in greenhouses should not be overrich but it should be well drained. When the plants have filled their final pots with roots, weekly applications of dilute liquid fertilizer will be of great benefit.

At all times these plants must be exposed to full sun and should be provided with airy, rather cool conditions. A night temperature of 50 degrees is ample; on dull days the temperature may rise about 5 degrees and on sunny days 10 or even 15 degrees.

By supplementing daylight with artificial light (either of the fluorescent or incandescent kind) earlier and more flowers can be obtained from Tagetes grown in greenhouses in winter.

Orchid cultivation

Orchids seem to do best if a greenhouse is devoted solely to their cultivation, though some types such as Odontoglossum grande and Coelogyne cristata will succeed very well in a general collection of plants.

At the outset, it is as well to consider the type of orchid collection you desire to grow or to provide for adding further sections of this large family. A general collection of orchids under one roof containing many species from widely differing habitats is perhaps the most satisfying type of collection. From it, you can gain a very broad understanding of the plants. The often wide temperature tolerance of many orchid species makes such a collection possible. Some may wish to establish a collection devoted to perhaps one genus, such as Cymbidium.

The ideal method is to divide a small greenhouse into two sections, one for plants requiring cool conditions, the other for those needing warm conditions. If an existing house is being taken over for orchids, and it provides cool conditions only, a small area could be enclosed with heavy gauge polythene and a soil-warming cable installed. This would allow the growing of warm types in the enclosure and the cool-growing types could be kept in the main body of the house.

The staging in the house should be of the double type, with a gap of about 16cm (6in) between the upper and lower stages. The upper stage can be of the open wood-slat type for placing the plants on and the under stage should be covered with gravel or ashes. This is referred to as the moisture staging and is frequently sprayed with water to keep up the humidity of the house. A gravel path which can be sprayed is also very useful for this purpose.

The type of plant will determine if the staging should be flat or in steps. A wire framework placed on top of the stage, if shaped like a series of step-ladders, will house many more plants if they are hung on the frame. Thin metal rods attached to the main beams of the house just above the path but not over the stage will provide more space, and this system is ideal for the species that prefer more light and many of the smaller orchids.

Ventilators should be preferably under the staging and in the roof. The ventilators found in many greenhouses in the upright glass sides of the house are not advisable for the orchid house because droughts are produced and excessive drying out will occur.

There are many heating systems available to the orchid grower today. The once much-favored boiler-heated water pipes of 10cm (4in) diameter have many advantages including a considerable degree of control. Many efficient electrical systems with thermostatic control are much used and the greenhouse fan type of heater is especially suitable. Care should be taken to install a system capable of providing somewhat above the minimum winter temperature decided on for the particular section of the family grown. Paraffin heating is a controversial subject among orchid growers.

Many use this form of heating to provide a supplementary source of heat on very cold winter nights and also for emergencies such as power cuts. Double glazing with polythene on the inner side of the glass can reduce heat loss and an increase in temperature of 5 degrees and more has been claimed with the use of double glazing.

A diversity of plants can be managed quite successfully under one roof, because despite attempts to produce uniform conditions in a greenhouse, some parts will inevitably be that much warmer, brighter, or moister, and this with a little experimentation can be turned into a considerable asset. It is well known that with a plant that is reluctant to flower or a slow grower, improved results can be had by moving the plant about the house until it responds to a different environment.

Ventilation The greater number of cultivated orchids require plenty of fresh air which is essential at all times, especially in the cool and intermediate sections of the orchid house. Besides providing an ample flow of air around the plants, ventilation is also used to help to regulate the temperature. In the warmer orchid houses, less air is required as the temperature would be made too low if the house was over-ventilated. Definite rules are difficult to state, but one of the most important is that draughts should be avoided as they can cause more damage than under-ventilating.

The use of top ventilators in the greenhouse roof must depend on the direction of the wind and its force. They should be opened just a little at first and the opening gradually increased if the temperature rises. Considerable amounts of moisture will be lost if these vents are open for too long. In a small greenhouse which heats up very quickly, the vents must be opened widely and frequent damping down will be necessary to counteract the moisture loss. Conservation of moisture is most important until the autumn when more air can be admitted to ensure ripening of the plants.

The bottom ventilators on the lower sides of the house can be used more frequently, especially if the heating pipes are under the staging. The air entering from these vents is warmed as it passes over the pipes. In the cool and intermediate sections these vents can be left open at night when it is not too cold, and with the cymbidiums a little ventilation can be used on all but the coldest days. If both top and bottom ventilators are to be open at the same time they should be open on the leeward side, which will reduce direct air currents. Usually it is best to open one set of vents only, the top being open when the bottom is closed and vice versa. If the house has ventilators in the glass sides these should not be used as too much moisture would be removed and draughts would be caused.

In general, air should be admitted whenever possible in both summer and winter provided that excessive moisture and temperature losses are avoided and droughts are not allowed to develop. Light and shade Orchids, in general, require plenty of light but not the direct rays of the sun, especially during late spring and summer. Some provision for shading will be required. The application of a shading paint such as ‘Summer Cloud’ can provide the right density of shading and is easy to apply, but it is more or less permanent until it is removed and it thus provides shade on dull days when it is required less, as well as on bright days. If the permanent shading is to be used it should be in position by the end of March or a little later if conditions are dull. The only really efficient method is to fit movable blinds. These can be of the slatted-wood type or of one of the plastic types such as `Tygan’. Light canvas can be used but does not give such long service.

An air space between the glass and blinds is essential as this helps to keep a more equable temperature in the house by allowing a free circulation of air over the glass. Blinds other than the wood-slat type, if kept flat on the glass, can cause considerable heating of the glass and hence of the air in the house. Blinds can be usefully lowered in the winter on very cold nights and perhaps even on the very coldest days when an east wind is blowing, as they give some protection.

Blinds have the great advantage of control; early morning and late evening light can be allowed to reach the plants to their great benefit. On days which are expected to be bright they can be lowered before you leave the house and raised again in the evening. On bright days from May onwards, blinds can be down from about 8 am to 6 pm GMT. Spring days demand the most caution in the use of blinds when many tender young growths are present on the plants which can very easily be scorched. As the late summer progresses into autumn more light should be admitted; a gradual increase helps to ripen the bulbs and makes the plants generally firm.

Cattleyas, cymbidiums and especially dendrobiums require abundant light to make them flower, while types such as paphiopedilums and masdevallias are definitely shade-loving. Slat blinds if used for the latter do not provide the correct density of shade, and hence a very light application of shading such as ‘Summer Cloud’ to the glass will be needed. The blinds can be lowered on the brightest days. This extra shading is also useful as a precaution against damage should the main blinds be overlooked. In large towns heavy fog causes a dark deposit on the glass in winter. This should be washed off, as orchids need all available light at this season.

Feeding

The feeding of orchids is a controversial matter and the beginner is advised not to feed orchids at the start. Plants grown in osmunda composts generally have enough nutriment provided as this material breaks down slowly. The various tree bark composts are said to be short of some plant foods, so weak applications of a liquid manure can be given.

Some of the terrestrial types benefit from the addition of old cow manure to the compost. Examples include the deciduous calanthes, thunia, lycaste and phaius. Cymbidiums and paphiopedilums, as well as the genera mentioned, can take regular applications of weak liquid feeds.

If the plants are to be fed, the weakest solution should always be used and then only during the growing season and on plants with a full rooting system. The more feeding a plant receives the more light is necessary. As the British climate does not always provide sufficient light for the ripening of growths, these frequently become soft when they are fed, and then disease troubles develop and the plants do not produce their usual number of flowers.

Temperatures

The temperatures for the various sections must be regarded as being average only. During bright spells temperatures may often rise well above the stated maximum. In winter the day temperatures should not be made higher by forcing the heating system.

Warm section In summer a temperature of about 70°F (21°C) by night and 70-80°F (21-27°C) by day, higher during bright spells. In winter 65°F (18°C) by night and 70°F (21°C) by day.

Intermediate section In summer a temperature of about 65°F (18°C) by night and 65-70°F (18-21°C) by day, higher during bright spells. In winter 55-60°F (13-16°C) by night and 60-65°F (16-18°C) by day.

Cool section In summer as near as possible to a temperature of 60°F (16°C) by night and day. In winter by night down to about a temperature of 50°F (10°C) and 55-60°F (13-16°C) by day. Cymbidiums prefer a winter night temperature minimum of 50°F (10°C); this can drop occasionally in very cold spells to 45°F (7°C). By day 50-55°F (10-13°C). In summer by night a temperature as near 50-55°F (10-13°C) as possible and 55-60°F (13-16°C) by day; this can rise to about 70°F (21°C) on bright days.

Over-wintering and the resting period

An orchid is resting when it exhibits the least root and top growth activity, usually in the winter, and the degree of rest varies considerably in this family of widely differing vegetative types. This makes it impossible to lay down hard and fast rules. In one genus, for example, the species vary one from the other in their requirements. The resting period often corresponds to the dry and either hot or cool period of the plant’s native climate. The ideal method for resting orchids is to have a resting house or section, but with a small mixed collection grown under one roof. There is always a cooler end to a greenhouse and this can be used to advantage by placing the resting plants at this end.

Plants without pseudobulbs or tubers must not be rested as they are always active to some extent, and they do not have the food and moisture storage facilities provided by these parts of the plant. Examples of this type include the slipper orchid, paphiopedilum, and the masdevallias. Vandas and aerides and similar types, which have a continuously upward growing stem often have thick fleshy leaves, which in nature are able to resist drought. These plants should receive just enough water to keep fresh the sphagnum moss on the compost surface.

In general, all young unflowered seedlings should be watered at all seasons with due consideration given to the weather. Other orchids with pseudo-bulbs or tubers require a rest in the winter—generally, the harder the bulb or leaf the longer and drier the rest. Those types that are deciduous or semi-deciduous require a more pronounced rest, for example, in the genus Dendrobium the D. nobile and D. wardianum types will take a longer rest than the evergreen types such as D. thrysifolium. Most cattleyas and laelias and their hybrids need several weeks rest after flowering. Always keep a look out for shriveling of the pseudobulbs; a little can be tolerated but this should never be so extreme as to affect the leading pseudobulb. Odontoglossums need not be rested in the same way as cattleyas, moisture should always be present to some extent, except for very short periods.

A house containing a small mixed collection will normally have a lower winter temperature and this will help to provide the natural conditions for resting. Attention must mainly be given to the frequency of watering. Careful observation of the individual plant will be the only rule. Failure to rest may induce weak, soft, winter growths, which is always a setback for the plant and it subsequently takes a long time to regain its former vigor. While reducing the moisture in the greenhouse as a standard winter practice, extreme conditions should be avoided because an excess of dry heat can produce undue shriveling of the pseudobulbs.

Propagation

The raising of new orchid hybrids from seed is a highly specialized procedure performed under laboratory conditions. The seed is sown on an agar jelly medium containing various mineral salts and sugars. Seed, glassware and implements are sterilized, as aseptic conditions are essential. After germination, which takes a minimum of three weeks and may last many months, the seedlings are usually placed on to a fresh agar jelly, again under sterile conditions. After about six months to a year the seedlings are transferred to community pots of standard potting compost and placed in the open greenhouse.

Propagation by division is the only method of increasing choice varieties. Paphiopedilums can be split at potting time, making sure that each new piece has several growths including a leading growth. Cattleyas are best treated by severing the rhizome behind the fourth or fifth bulb from the front some months before the plant is to be repotted. A bud on the base of the bulb on the older portion may break into growth, eventually forming a new shoot. These pieces can be potted up separately.

Back bulbs of most orchids can be induced to produce new shoots either as single bulbs or in clusters of two or three. Place these in the warmest place, in a pot partly full of crocks and topped with sphagnum moss. Dendrobiums of the nobile section often produce fresh plantlets near the top of old pseudobulbs. These can be taken off with a sharp knife when they have made a few small roots and potted up in the smallest pot available, in pure sphagnum moss. Old back bulbs can be cut up into small pieces of about 5cm (2in) and inserted around the edge of pots filled with moss or sand and peat.

Large plants of many orchids have several leading growths and if these are cut up into pieces with the correct number of bulbs per growth, as many new plants will be formed. Duplication of fine varieties is always advisable against possible loss by accident, but before deciding to break up a large healthy plant the value of such a specimen should be considered. Such plants are very attractive and may receive more attention at shows. A small propagating frame in the greenhouse greatly facilitates the establishment of plants from bulb divisions and at the same time provides a home for small-growing orchids that require extra warmth.

Pests and diseases

The main pests of orchids are scale insects, mealy bugs, red spider mites and thrips. Scale insects, as the name implies, appear as small, brownish or greenish scales on the leaves and stems, especially of cattleyas, wherein bad infestations they get behind the bulb sheaths. Control is by sponging or spraying with insecticide. Mealy bugs are small insects covered with a grey meal and can cause considerable damage if allowed to remain unchecked. Like scale insects, they also find their way under bracts and leaf sheaths. Small pockets of these insects can be controlled by applying a mixture of nicotine and methylated spirits with a small artist’s paintbrush.

Red spider mites are small, hardly visible without a hand lens, greenish to red in color and found on the undersides of the leaves; where they cause, in bad infestations, a dry silvered appearance on the leaf surface. They are sucking creatures living on the plant sap. They can be considered to be the worst enemy of the orchid grower as they can transmit virus disease in their passage from one plant to another. Alternation of control sprays is very necessary as resistance to a single spray is soon built up and it will have little effect. Malathion, derris and Chlorocide sprays can be used in rotation. Thrip is a minute insect and its presence is detected by small round, punctured discolored areas on the softer leaves and on flowers. The best approach to orchid pests is regular spraying as a preventive measure.

Always follow the maker’s instructions as some chemicals can be dangerous if due care is not taken. New plants should always be carefully inspected, especially imported plants. Slugs and snails have a taste for fresh young orchid growths as well as roots and flowers. Good control can be effected with Slugit used either as a spray or as pellets which can be placed on the benches around the pots.

Diseases are in general uncommon in orchids. Good healthy plants which have been grown under well-aired conditions are seldom attacked. An occasional plant may succumb to a black rot disease. Diseased parts can be carefully cut away and powdered sulphur applied to the cut surface. If caught in time these rots can be controlled but very badly infected plants are best destroyed. Virus disease is the one exception. This appears especially in cymbidiums as yellowish streaks or ringed areas which eventually turn blackish. New propagation techniques will ensure that only healthy plants are distributed, while infected plants are best burnt. Control of red spider mites and other sucking insects such as greenfly will reduce the risk of virus spread.

Potting composts For many years the standard ingredients of orchid potting composts have been osmunda fiber which is the chopped-up root system of the royal fern (Osmunda regalis) and the bog moss known as sphagnum moss. Osmunda fiber is somewhat expensive as it is imported from Italy and a finer grade from Japan. Though it requires some skill in its use, its long-lasting properties and ability to provide enough food as it breaks down makes it an ideal medium for growing orchids. The beginner would be well advised to gain experience in potting with osmunda fiber and wait until later before experial ready prepared and mixed with sphagnum moss for immediate use.

This is often available by the bushel, which will make it possible to pot a large number of plants in 16cm (4in) pots. Larger amounts can be bought in the rough state in bales. The baled fibre should be pulled apart, chopped up and the dust sieved out. Selection of the rough and the finer fibers will provide material for those plants with either coarse fleshy roots or thin delicate roots.

The prepared mixture should be neither wet nor completely dry but just moist. Prior to a potting session the potting compost should be placed in the greenhouse to keep it warm, as the use of cold material can do damage to the roots by chilling them. Many of the cultivated orchids are epiphytes, that is plants which grow on trees, deriving their nourishment from leafmould and other plant debris which accumulates around the roots and also from the air. They are perching plants only, and do not derive food from their host tree as do the parasitic plants. Many of the roots are freely suspended in the air and others cling to the bark or penetrate among the mosses which grow along the branches.

The dividing line between the epiphytes and the other group known as the terrestrials is sometimes rather vague. The terrestrial type grows essentially in the soil or in the humus of forest floors. At one time it was the practice to use these two divisions as a guide for potting materials, using fiber and moss for the epiphytes, adding loam fiber to moss and fiber for the so-called terrestrials, such as the plain-leaved slipper orchids (paphiopedilums), cymbidiums and lycastes. The use of loam fiber is not so frequent nowadays, but if good material is available it does help to keep costs down by reducing the amount of osmunda required in the composts.

With care orchids will grow in a wide variety of materials, provided they are of an open texture. For example, various types of tree bark broken down into small pieces are used extensively in America. Excellent results are produced, but feeding of some sort seems to be necessary, whereas with the standard osmunda compost feeding is not generally necessary. Other substitute or supplementary materials sometimes used are dry bracken fronds, which are said to be rich in potash. Some plastic fibers, which have the same consistency and thickness as osmunda fiber, when mixed with sphagnum moss give good results with feeding. Even pure sphagnum moss as a potting material has been very successfully used for some orchids.

Bed cultivation of cymbidiums has come into favor and a recently recommended compost consists of equal parts of leafmould, dry bracken stems, coarse sand, sphagnum peat and old cow dung. This compost can also be used for pot cultivation.

Potting procedure

The best time to repot an orchid is generally in the spring or when root growth begins. The plants then have the summer in which to produce abundant roots and complete their growths. If possible potting should take place when the roots are just showing or at least when they are very short. A plant with long roots is not easy to deal with if damage is to be avoided. The shorter they are the less risk there is of breaking the naturally brittle roots.

Potting time must depend on the individual plant, and its growth habits should be studied. Some cattleyas, for example, produce a growth which matures to flowering before roots are formed in abundance, and this is usually in mid summer. Odontoglossums can be potted in spring or in early autumn, at either season avoiding the warmer days when they are making roots. The slipper orchids can be potted after flowering in late winter provided this is done in warm conditions.

In general, orchids need not be potted every year if the compost remains in a wholesome condition, firm and sweet. If the fingers can be readily pushed into the compost attention is needed. Every other year is a good rule for potting. Even then if the plant has enough room and only a small portion of the compost is soft, the bad part can be replaced with fresh compost, or the surface material can be removed if it is sour and broken down and a top dressing of new compost worked in.

Orchids do not like decayed compost but they equally dislike too frequent disturbance and this fact should always be in mind when an orchid needs attention; it could be that a drastic treatment such as a complete stripping down of all the compost would prove fatal. Orchids should never be over-potted, rather they should be under-potted if the correct pot size cannot be used. With the exception of cymbidiums, phaius, Zygopetalum mackayi and some of the thick fleshy-rooted types which require ample room to grow, the smallest pot should be chosen.

Three-quarter pots or pans are preferable for most types. For those with rambling stems or the pendant or ascending varieties, rafts or baskets would be more suitable. Baskets with widely spaced spars are essential for the stanhopeas which send their spikes downwards, the flowers appearing beneath the container.

The plant to be repotted should be lifted out of its old pot by inserting a potting stick at the back of the plant and gently levering the plant upwards. Where the roots are adhering tightly to the outer surface of the pot less damage can be caused by cracking the pot with a sharp blow.

The new pot should be amply crocked from a third to a half of its depth, depending on type, with pieces of broken pot inserted vertically over the drainage hole. Perfect drainage is essential for orchids. The plant should be prepared by holding it firmly in the left hand, and with a potting stick in the right hand carefully remove downwards all the old soft compost, leaving that which is still sound, especially at the front. Old decayed roots should be cut away to the rhizome and any old soft, brown bulb cut off. This will often allow the plant to be replaced in the same-sized pot.

In general, about 4 or 5 bulbs and the new growth should form the plant to be potted, again depending on the individual plant and its vigor. The back part of the plant, that is the oldest bulb, should be placed at the rim of the new pot, allowing about 5cm (2in) in front of the leading growth for future development. A small quantity of compost should be placed over the crocks and selected wads of compost carefully placed about the roots of the plant ensuring a good base beneath the rhizome. Insert the plant into its new pot and carefully work in new compost, starting at the back of the plant and keeping the rhizome level with the top of the pot.

The fingers of the right hand should work through the heap of compost, selecting wads of fibers and attempting to gather these so that the wad has the fibers running up and down. This wad should be pressed with a potting stick inwards towards the plant and at the same time slightly downwards. This should continue with the lower level and then with the top layer until the compost level is just below the pot rim. Attention should be given to the inward levering of the compost towards the plant, as any excessive downward pressure can make a caked-hard mass, resulting in impeded drainage.

A test for the correct firmness of potting is to pick up the potted plant by the leaves or the bulbs which should not part from the pot. The completed surface can be given a trim with shears. As with all practical matters a demonstration by an expert is the ideal way to learn this essentially simple procedure and such a demonstration can be seen at many orchid nurseries.

Stake the freshly potted plant if necessary and keep it in a shadier place than is usual for the type for some weeks. Attention to the cutting of the osmunda fiber when making up the compost makes for easier potting. It is cut finer for small plants and left in larger pieces if large plants are to be potted.

Watering and damping

The watering orchids is perhaps the most difficult cultivation procedure for the beginner to understand. Judgement and care must be used. This applies to any pot plant, but orchids do have their special needs. A carefully watered orchid collection can be left for a short time with no ill effect, provided you look after ventilation and shading. Although other plants left for the same time would not be able to withstand the lack of water, this is one of the many advantages in growing orchids.

Rain-water is always preferable to tap water and a rainwater tank for storage, placed in the house will ensure that the water temperature will be near to that of the house in cold weather. Mains water if it is non-alkaline can be used in some districts. Cold water should never be used. Water well when watering at all; sufficient should be given to wet the whole of the compost.

Never water a wet plant. The timing between waterings will depend on many factors such as the type of orchid, the weather and the temperature. Overwatering is without doubt the main cause of unsuccessful cultivation, the waterlogged compost excludes the air that is so important to the orchid roots. Many beginners take this advice to the extreme and let their plants become tinder dry.

This can be equally disastrous except when the type requires a hard dry rest to encourage flowering. This rest is given in the winter. If drainage is correctly provided and the compost is not too tightly packed and hence of the right porosity, there is less danger of overwatering. Perhaps the main cause of damage is too frequent watering. This applies especially when the plants are not in full growth, either early or late in the season and in the winter and also in dull weather when drying out of the compost is not so pronounced. Each plant should be treated as an individual. All of one type may not need the same treatment, but it is an advantage to stage their growth, together, when one can be compared to another, thereby gaining experience.

A watering can with a fine spout is ideal as the amount coming out can be easily controlled when watering plants on the benches. Plants in hanging pots tend to dry out and those in baskets even more so, as they are near glass. They should be immersed in a bucket of water to just over the pot rim.

A well-established plant with a healthy active root system and good drainage in its pot will require liberal watering in its growing season. Recently repotted plants require much less water and are best grouped together at the shadier end of the house. Signs of their need for water are difficult to observe, but if there is any doubt it is best not to water the plant until the following day or when the next general watering takes place.

Live sphagnum moss on the compost surface becomes yellowish when dry and this can be used as a guide that water is required. Lifting the pots (a wet one is obviously heavier than a dry one) does give some indication, especially if this is coupled with feeling the texture of the compost. Another test sometimes used is to pour a very little water on to the compost and if this soaks in readily the plant receives no further water. Tapping of the pots as practised with other plants in loam compost is not recommended, as it is both deceptive and unreliable.

Damping

This is the process of spraying the floors, walls and stages of the orchid house to increase the atmospheric humidity which is so necessary for the continued health of the plants. Greenhouses vary considerably, one being naturally dry and another moist, but as a general rule damping should be done two or three times a day according to the weather and time of the year, more damping being needed on hot dry days and none on the coldest days.

Damping is best carried out when the temperature is rising and not when it is falling. Ordinary tap water can be used so as to conserve rain water supplies. Special care is needed in the autumn during dull mild spells when little heating is being used; the atmosphere can become excessively moist at these times. In winter the greenhouse atmosphere will often become dry due to the greater heat in use. Damping should then be increased slightly but only if the temperature is to be maintained, as any marked decrease in temperature would result in over-moist conditions.

 How to grow Orchids

The herbaceous border, which is a comparative newcomer to the garden scene, is still one of its most popular features. Introduced at the turn of the century by Gertrude Jekyll as a protest against the monotonous formality of Victorian garden design, its popularity has steadily increased until today there are few gardens without some kind of perennial border to enhance their beauty throughout the months of summer and autumn.

Restricted originally to plants of purely perennial habit—in the main, those whose growth begins afresh from ground level each year—the terms of reference have gradually been extended so that today we find included not only spring and summer bulbs and corms but also small shrubby plants and those curious in-betweens whose woody top growth persists throughout the winter, but which otherwise display most of the characteristics of true perennials. These are the sub-shrubs, of which plants such as the plumbago-flowered Ceratostigma willmottianum, Caryopteris clandonensis, and the Russian sage, Perovskia atriplicifolia are typical examples.

Preparing the site

Preliminary preparation of the site for an herbaceous border is of paramount importance. Much of its subsequent success or failure will depend on the thoroughness with which it is carried out. Some soils, of course, are a good deal more difficult to prepare than others, but whether you garden on heavy, back-breaking clay or easily managed, well-drained sandy loam, there must be sufficient supplies of humus in the soil if the plants are to give off their best.

Deep digging and thorough cultivation are two further essentials. Most of the occupants of the border will remain in the same positions for at least three years, while other more permanent specimens such as paeonies, hellebores, romneyas, and hemerocallis can stay put almost indefinitely without the necessity for division or replanting.

It may be necessary to double dig the whole of the projected plot to ensure that such conditions are fulfilled. This will result in a thorough breaking up of both the surface and second spits of soil. As far as medium to light well-drained loams are concerned, bastard trenching, which leaves the lower spit in situ but broken up with a fork, is probably just as effective, but it is better to give wet, heavy soils the full treatment.

Humus Thorough digging, however, is insufficient to create the soil conditions in which perennials thrive best. To provide them, plentiful supplies of humus or humus-forming material must be present in the soil, enough, in fact, to satisfy much of the plants’ needs for several seasons, as normally the border will be due for a complete overhaul only once in every three to four years.

Various materials can provide humus, the best of which, of course, is the almost impossible to obtain stable or farmyard manure. Most of us, however, will have to settle for alternatives. Compost, properly made and well rotted down, heads the list of these but supplies of this are quickly exhausted unless we supplement our garden and domestic waste with straw, sawdust, or other similar materials brought in from outside.

Leaf Mould is excellent but expensive unless you are lucky enough to have access to natural sources of supply. Oak and beech leaves are the richest in plant foods, while bracken rots down to a material of peat-like consistency, good for stepping up the humus content of the soil but otherwise lacking in plant foods. Young bracken shoots, on the other hand, are rich in plant foods and minerals and make a valuable contribution to the compost heap.

For the town gardener and for those who cannot readily obtain the materials mentioned above, peat is the best soil conditioner. It is clean both to store and handle, and can hold many times its own bulk of moisture.

Spent hops are another first-rate humus forming material. If you can obtain supplies in bulk from a local brewery, they will be relatively cheap. The so-called hop manures with added organic fertilizers are a convenient but expensive method of supplying humus to the border.

These or similar materials are best worked into the upper spit as digging progresses. Alternatively, they can be forked into the soil a few weeks before the plants are put in.

Fortunately, the vast majority of the more widely-grown herbaceous perennials are very accommodating. They will thrive in most types of soil although characteristics such as height, vigor and rate of increase will vary considerably between, for example, light, sandy loams and heavy, sticky clays. It is a good rule never to coddle temperamental plants. There is neither time nor room for them in the herbaceous border, where plants are grown more for their effect in the mass than as individuals.

Weeds The best time of the year to prepare the site for planting is late summer or early autumn. This will allow the winter frosts to break up heavy clods to a fine planting tilth. This, of course, is not so important with light sandy soils which can be cultivated at almost any season of the year. As digging progresses, it is imperative to remove every possible vestige of perennial weeds; the aim should be to start with a site that is completely weed-free, although when fresh ground is being taken over this can be no more than a counsel of perfection.

Watch particularly for the roots of bindweed, ground elder, and couch grass. Even if only a few pieces remain in the soil, any of these can soon stage a rapid comeback.

Couch grass, or ‘twitch’ as it is sometimes called, is easily recognizable; the narrow leaf blades are coarse, with serrated edges; leaves and underground runners are sectional, like miniature bamboo shoots, with nodules at the joints. Ground elder has leaves similar
to those of its shrub namesake and quite attractive flowers. It is easily identified by the pungent aroma of its bruised leaves and stems. Bindweed, also known as bellbind in some parts of the country, has attractive white trumpet-shaped flowers and a twining habit that can strangle any plant that is the object of its attentions.

Any of these weeds are anathema in the border and once established will prove well-nigh impossible to eradicate without a complete overhaul. Other perennial weeds—not quite as difficult but still a nuisance—include docks, thistles, clover and creeping buttercup. In acid soils sorrel, too, can be troublesome.

If annual weeds multiply alarmingly, and they will, in very wet summers, there is no need for undue despondency. Regular sessions with a hand fork or a lady’s border fork will keep them in check. Vigorous low-growing perennials will act as their own ground cover.

In autumn, and in early spring if possible, the border should have a thorough forking over, removing and burning all perennial weeds. Any plant clumps showing signs of weed infestation should be dug up. After shaking or washing their roots free of soil, offending weed roots or runners that have penetrated the plants should be carefully teased out and removed. The clumps can then be replanted in situ, or if their size warrants it, be split up and re-grouped. If the replanting is carried out without delay the plants will not suffer any check. In fact, very vigorous growers such as Michaelmas daisies, Campanula lactiflora and Chrysanthemum maximum will benefit from this procedure.

It follows from the foregoing that new stocks received from the nursery or from generous fellow-gardeners should have their roots carefully examined for invading weeds before they are put in. We may not be able to entirely suppress the weeds in the soil, but there is no point in deliberately planting trouble.

Supplementary dressings

Unless farmyard manure has been available in generous quantities it will be advisable to give a booster of some kind of fertilizer a few weeks before the border is planted up. Bonemeal and fish manure, which are both organic and slow acting, will give good results, applied at a rate of 60-80g (2-3oz) to the sq m (sq yd). As an alternative, a good general fertilizer, such as `Growmore’ can be used at the rate recommended by the makers.

A good way of distributing this supplementary plant food is to rake it into the soil when the final preparations for planting are being made. Alternatively, it can be pricked lightly into the surface with a fork. An established border will benefit from a similar dressing when growth starts in spring.

Siting

Most of the more widely-grown perennials are sun-lovers, so that a position facing south or west will be the most suitable for the border. But since this feature is seen at its best when viewed lengthwise, it may be necessary, if we plan to enjoy its beauty from some fixed vantage point such as a terrace or the living room windows, to effect some sort of compromise where aspect is concerned.

Generally speaking, any position except a sunless north-facing one, or one where the plants suffer shade and drip from overhanging trees, will be quite satisfactory.

Background

Just as a fine picture deserves an appropriate frame, so the herbaceous border needs a proper setting for its beauty. In the past this has usually been supplied by a background wall or hedge, but nowadays double sided and island borders are becoming popular, where the only background is provided by the adjacent grass or paving. Nothing, however, makes a more suitable backcloth than a well-kept evergreen hedge—yew, holly, cypress, beech, or hornbeam. Mellowed brick or stone wall, too, can act as a pleasing accompaniment, and even wattle hurdles or a wooden fence, when discreetly covered by climbing plants, can provide an attractive setting.

Plants grown against walls or fences will require additional attention where staking and tying are concerned. In rough weather strong gusts and eddies develop at their base which can have disastrous results unless the plants are strongly secured.

Hedges, beautiful though they may be as backgrounds, also have their disadvantages. Most, if not all, hedging plants are notorious soil robbers. Some, such as privet, are much worse than others and should be avoided if a new planting is to be made. The roots of an established hedge can be kept in check by taking out a trench a foot or so away from the base of the plants and chopping back all the fibrous roots with a sharp spade. This operation, which should be carried out while the hedge is dormant, could very well coincide with the periodic overhaul and replanting of the border.

If space permits, it is a good plan to leave a gap of 60-90cm (2-3ft) between the foot of the hedge and the rear rank border plants. This, incidentally, will also provide useful access to the back of the border for maintenance work.

Yew, of course, is the best plant for a background hedge. Slow and compact in growth, it requires a minimum of attention—one ‘short back and sides’ trim annually will suffice, and its foliage of sombre green is the perfect foil for the bright colors of the border plants.

Planning

Planning the border can be fun. With squared paper and a sheaf of nursery catalogues there could be few pleasanter ways of spending a winter’s evening by the fire. Ready-made collections complete with planting plans are useful for the complete novice and can form the nucleus of a wider collection, but it is a good deal more interesting to work out your own color schemes and to see the plans coming to fruition in the garden.

There is such a wide choice of herbaceous plants that the permutations and combinations of color, form and texture are infinite in number. Individual tastes vary and so do fashions in flower colors. The pastel shades, popular for so many years, are giving place to the stronger reds, yellows and blues of the Victorian era.

A border composed entirely of any one of these primary colors would be striking in its effect, but the planning would need very careful handling and a thorough knowledge of plant characteristics. If you lack experience, you would be well advised to use a mixture of colors, grouped according to your individual taste.

As a general rule, in a border of mixed colors the paler shades should be at each end, with the brighter, more vivid ones grouped mainly at the center. For example, the pure whites of Phlox paniculata alba, Achillea ptarmica ‘The Pearl’, and Gypsophila ‘Bristol Fairy’ could melt almost imperceptibly into the cool primrose yellows of Achillea taygetea and Verbascum bombyciferum (syn. broussa), flanked by the deeper yellows of Hemerocallis ‘Hyperion’, one of the best of the free-flowering day lilies, and Lysimachia punctata, the yellow loosestrife.

The middle of the border could explode into brilliant color with scarlet Lychnis chalcedonica, Lobelia fulgens, Potentilla ‘Gibson’s Scarlet’, and the garnet-red Astilbe `Fanal’. Once past its climax, the border could progress to
white once more through the blues of delphiniums, sea holly, (Eryngium maritimum) whose leaves, as well as the flowers are metallic blue, and the stately Echinops ritro, with thistle-like dark green foliage and drumstick flower heads of steely blue. Other suitable blue perennials include the attractive indigo-blue monkshood, Aconitum ‘Bressingham Spire’ and the curious balloon flower, Platycodon grandiflorum.

These could be followed by the soft pinks of Geranium endressii, Sidalcea `Sussex Beauty’, the long flowering Veronica spicata—Pavane’ and ‘Minuet’ are both good varieties—and the later-blooming ice plant, Sedum spectabile `Brilliant’.

And so back to white again, this time represented by Japanese anemones, Anemone hupehensis `Honorine Jobert’, Lysimachia clethroides, Potentilla alba and a good garden form of the sweetly scented meadow sweet, Filipendula ulmaria plena.

This, of course, would not constitute a complete planting plan, but is merely a suggestion that could form the framework of an attractive herbaceous border. color, though it may take pride of place in the overall display, is not everything where the successful herbaceous border is concerned. The form and leaf texture of the plants, as well as the manner in which they are grouped, all play a part that is vitally important to the ultimate effect.

It is important to plant in relatively large groups, each restricted to one kind or variety, the size depending on the overall dimensions of the border. Blocks of three plants should, as a general rule, be the minimum, while, for smaller edging and carpeting plants, six would be a reasonable number if spottiness is to be avoided.

Although the general trend should be towards ‘shortest in the front, tallest in the rear’, this is a rule that should not be too rigidly adhered to. Some of the taller plants should be allowed to wander to the middle or even, at certain points, to the front of the border while the lower marginal plants can be permitted to flow unobtrusively inwards to make small pools and rivulets of contrasting height and color among their taller neighbors.

A number of perennials are grown as much for the beauty of their foliage as for the decorative quality of their flowers. Outstanding among these are the hostas, or plantain lilies with their outsize ribbed leaves, acanthus, whose sculptured foliage formed the classic model for the Corinthian capitals of Ancient Greek architecture, hemerocallis, Iris sibirica and kniphofias for the contrasting effect of their sword-like leaves, the variety of rue known as Rata graveolens ‘Jackman’s Blue’ and others whose names have been indicated in the list below.

Other plants are cultivated for their attractive seed heads. These include the fascinating but invasive Chinese lanterns (physalis), the silvery tasselled Pulsatilla vulgaris or Pasque flower, Baptista australis with its soot-black seed pods and the magnificent Heracleum mantegazzianum, a garden plant resembling a giant cow parsley whose outsize flat seed heads are borne on stems 3m (10ft) or more tall.

Planting

The great majority of perennial border plants can be planted with safety between the end of September and the last week of March. In fact, the planting of late-flowering specimens such as Michaelmas daisies and border chrysanthemums could very well be delayed until April.

Planting holes should be of sufficient depth and breadth to accommodate the roots of the plants without bunching or overcrowding. Small plants can be firmed in by hand, but for large clumps the heel of the boot will be required. Although firm planting is desirable, this should not entail embedding the roots in a pocket of sticky ‘goo’. In heavy clay soils, planting will have to be delayed until the soil condition improves or, better still, the holes can be filled with sifted compost or a mixture of dry soil and peat that has been kept under cover for this purpose.

With the more vigorous perennials such as golden rod, shasta daisies, achilleas and campanulas, it is not necessary, if time presses, to be too fussy over planting procedure, provided that the soil has been properly prepared and is in good heart. Others, however, such as paeonies, alstroemerias and hellebores will need more careful attention. Paeonies, for example, should never be planted with their dormant growth buds more than approximately 5cm (2in) below the surface; planting too deeply is one of the commonest causes of failure to bloom satisfactorily. The planting or division of catmint is better delayed until spring. Autumn-planted specimens frequently fail to survive. This is a rule that might well be applied to all grey-leaved border plants. Once established they can tolerate severe weather conditions but in their first winter they often succumb to severe frosts if they are planted in autumn.

For the newcomer to gardening, the importance of dealing only with reputable nurseries cannot be overstressed. Their catalogues, in addition to lists and descriptions of plants, will often contain a wealth of information regarding their likes and dislikes. Plants, too, will be delivered at the most appropriate time of year for planting out.

Choice of plants

Anyone starting an herbaceous border from scratch would be well advised to take advantage of the many new plants and modern varieties of older favorites that require little or no staking and tying. By this means, one of the major summer chores in the border can be considerably reduced.

Many of these new-style border plants are entirely self-supporting; others need only a few twiggy sticks pushed in among them to keep them in order.

Plants such as tall delphiniums will, of course, have to have each individual flower secured to a stake or stout cane. If space permits, it is better to segregate these and other similar top-heavy plants ; they do better where they are more easy to get at for maintenance.

Not all the taller border plants suffer from this shortcoming; Artemisia lactiflora, for example, is a plant whose 2m (6ft) stems of feathery milk-white flowers, smelling like meadowsweet, will stand up to a howling gale without turning a hair, while others, for example the moon daisies and taller perennial asters, will collapse and sprawl at the first hint of rough weather, if they are not securely staked.

Careful and judicious selection at the planning stage, therefore, can make the border practically trouble-free where staking and tying are concerned.

Double-sided or ‘island’ borders achieve similar results in a different way. Plants grown in an open situation are sturdier and more compact than those grown against a wall or hedge which tends to cause them to be drawn both upwards and outwards. This sturdier habit makes them less liable to damage by heavy winds and rough weather, and, in addition, access at both sides of the border makes routine maintenance a good deal easier. The idea of a double-sided border is not new. Formerly, in large gardens, they were commonly used as a decorative edging in the kitchen garden where they served the dual purpose of screening the vegetable crops and providing flowers for cutting.

Island borders, however, are a more recent innovation, for whose introduction we have largely to thank Mr Alan Bloom, whose borders at Bressingham, Norfolk attract a host of admirers. One of their attractions, in addition to ease of maintenance, lies in the fact that they can be viewed from above as well as along their length and from the front. For this reason, the height of the plants should not exceed 1-1.3m (3-4ft) in order that the kaleidoscopic color effects of the plant groupings can be seen to their best advantage.

Prolonging the display

One of the main disadvantages of the herbaceous border as a garden feature is a comparatively short period during which it makes a major contribution to the garden display.

Normally, it is only in early or mid-June that it really starts to make its color impact, with lupins, oriental poppies, irises, anchusa, aquilegias and other June-flowering perennials.

Reaching its peak in July and August it continues to delight in early autumn and retires in a blaze of Michaelmas daisies, red hot pokers, perennial sunflowers and border chrysanthemums, which carry it through, in most districts, until mid October.

For the other seven months of the year, however, the border can lack color and interest, unless steps are taken to extend its scope by supplementing the orthodox planting materials with others that flower both early and late.

Spring bulbs, such as daffodils, tulips, hyacinths, chionodoxas, scillas and grape hyacinths, all make first-class curtain raisers and will fill the spaces between perennials with bright spring color. A little later wallflowers, polyanthus, forget-me-nots and other spring bedding plants can be used as gap-fillers.

There are quite a few herbaceous plants proper, beginning in January with the hellebores, that will considerably extend the border’s period of interest and relieve the monotony of bare brown earth and dead stems. Helleborus niger, the Christmas rose, seldom fulfils the 3 promise of its name, unless it has the protection of cloches or a cold greenhouse, but it can be relied on to open its pure white chalices by the middle or end of January, although even then it will still appreciate a little protection to save its immaculate petals from damage by wind and rain.

Following close on its heels comes the Lenten rose, Helleborus orientalis and other delightful species that include the stately H. argutifolius (syn. H. corsicus) and our native H. foetidus, whose green flower clusters are a good deal smaller than those of the Corsican species.

In February and March, too, there will be the pink and carmine flower trusses of the bergenias, among the finest of flowering perennials. These useful plants, that used to be called megaseas, are outsize members of the saxifrage family and most species are evergreen so that their handsome fleshy leaves, bronze or reddish in winter, as well as their striking flowers, make a valuable contribution to the winter border. `Ballawley Hybrid’, a relatively new introduction from Ireland, is one of the most outstanding examples of the group. Other good forms and species include B. cordifolia with rounded crinkly leaves, B. crassifolia, probably the most commonly-seen, whose leaves are more spoon-shaped than round and B. schmidtii, an unusual species the leaves of which have hairy margins and whose loose sprays of clear pink flowers are the earliest to appear.

Blue flowers are always attractive and there are several perennials to provide them once winter is over. The so-called giant forget-me-not, Brunnera macrophylla (syn. Anchusa myosotidiflora) is one of these, as are the lung-worts or pulmonarias. Both of these have foliage that stays attractive throughout the remainder of the season.

There are several species of pulmonaria, the most striking of which is P. angustifolia azurea, with clear gentian-blue flowers. It looks superb in conjunction with the yellow daisy flowers of the leopard’s bane, Doronicum `Harpur Crewe. P. angustifolia rubra has coral-red blossoms, those of P. saccharata are pinkish-purple turning to blue; the multi-colored appearance is responsible for its nickname of soldiers and sailors, while its strikingly-mottled leaves have earned it the popular title of spotted dog. Incidentally, the foliage of all the lungworts, which remains tidy throughout the summer, acts as an excellent weed-cover.

In the shadier parts of the border Hepatica triloba with its leathery, ivy-like leaves and true-blue flowers, together with primulas and polyanthus will all make pools of color in April and May. The golden flowers of Alyssum saxatile flore pleno will shine even more brightly in association with the white flowers of the perennial candytuft Iberis sempervirens ‘Snowflake’, in the sunny spots at the edge of the border.

Heucheras and heucherellas will enliven the early summer scene with their spikes of brilliant coral and clear pink miniature bells. The latter is an interesting hybrid between heuchera and tiarella, the foam flower, which is useful both for its decorative value at this time and as an evergreen carpeting plant later in the season. All these will do well in partial shade.

A complete contrast both in flowers and its ferny foliage is Dicentra spectabilis, the lyre flower, better known to cottagers as bleeding heart, lady’s locket or Dutchman’s breeches. This plant prefers partial shade and blooms in late spring, at the same time as the graceful Solomon’s seal, Polygonatum multiflorum, with its hanging bells of greenish white.

To provide color continuity from late summer onwards there are, in addition to the indispensable Michaelmas daisies, various other perennial and bulbous plants. The grey-leaved Anaphalis triplinervis is one of these. Its papery ‘everlasting’ white star-like flowers, which appear first in July, will still be immaculate in October. The Japanese anemone, Anemone hupehensis, of which there are now many lovely named varieties, will start to throw up clusters of chalice-like blossoms from early August until the first heavy frosts arrive. The single forms, both pink and white are still firm favorites, but if you are looking for something out-of-the-ordinary you might like to try `Margarete’, a double pink, with rows of ruff-like petals. Prince Henry‘, sometimes listed as ‘Profusion’, is one of the most striking singles, its color much richer than those of the other pinks.

In sheltered bays in the border from August onwards, two closely-allied South African bulbous plants will make a welcome splash of color. The blue African lily, agapanthus—the species A. campanulatus is perfectly hardy in the south of England—has drumstick heads of powder-blue flowers, while those of Nerine bowdenii are similar, but less tightly packed with pink florets. `Fenwick’s Variety’, an attractive pink, is the best form for out-of-doors.

And so the year goes by in the herbaceous border, with the first Christmas roses plumping up their buds as the last lingering flowers of the border chrysanthemums shrivel and fade. In the well-planned perennial border there need never be a dull moment.

Winter work

Apart from the periodic division, replanting and occasional replanning of the border, winter maintenance will consist mainly of tidying-up and light forking between the plants. There are two schools of thought where the former operation is concerned. Some gardeners prefer to leave the tidying of the border until spring—the dead leaves and stems, they claim, protect the crowns of the plants in really severe weather. Others, who cannot stand the sight of so much dead untidy vegetation cut down the dead stems at the earliest opportunity.

There is a lot to be said for the former point of view, but a lot will depend on how the border is sited. If it is in full view of the house windows, the sooner it is made ship-shape the better. Only a very small number of popular herbaceous perennials are delicate enough to suffer irreparable damage, even in the severest winter. Plants, such as eremurus and Lobelia fulgens, which may be damaged by frosts, can be protected by covering their crowns with weathered ashes or bracken.

Where the border is more remotely situated, clearing up operations can take their place in the queue of urgent garden tasks that make their heaviest demands on us during the winter months.

Other uses of herbaceous plants

Perennials have become so closely associated in our minds with the herbaceous border that we tend to overlook their many other uses in the garden. For example, bedding schemes employing perennials can be just as attractive as those in which the more orthodox hardy and half-hardy annuals are used. What is more important, management and upkeep will be simplified and costs will be less where these versatile plants are utilized.

Perennials as bedding plants

For bedding purposes, it will be necessary to choose perennials with a relatively long flowering season and/or attractive foliage, plus a solid and compact habit of growth. Among those fulfilling such requirements are Brunnera macrophylla (syn. Anchusa myosotidiflora), the so-called giant forget-me-not, Anemone hupehensis, the Japanese anemone, Armeria maritima, thrift, the medium and dwarf Michaelmas daisies and dwarf delphiniums, for example D. ruysii or D. chinensis. The two last-named, in common with a number of other perennials, have the added advantage of being easy to grow from seed.

Segregation of groups and species Another good way of making the best use of certain groups and species is to grow them in beds restricted to the one type of perennial. By growing them in this way, it is easy to make satisfactory provision for their special requirements in the way of feeding, staking, tying and general cultivation.

This works well for herbaceous plants such as lupins, flag irises, paeonies, oriental poppies and the taller delphiniums. A further point in favor of this method is that it avoids the bare patches that tend to appear in the border when such early-flowering perennials form part of the general scheme.

Other herbaceous perennials that will benefit from this method of culture are the Michaelmas daisies. Where sufficient space is available, a representative collection, grown in a bed or border devoted to them alone, will make a far greater impact than they would dotted about in groups in the mixed border. Waterside planting Although the great majority of perennials will thrive in a wide range of garden soils and situations, there are some that prefer shade and moisture, conditions that cannot always be easily provided in the herbaceous border. These make excellent plants for the waterside—by the banks of streams or artificial watercourses or at the edge of the garden pool.

Primulas, astilbes, Iris sibirica and Iris kaempferi, kingcups (Caltha palustris) and the globe flower (Trollius species) are just a few that will grow better in damp, shady positions.

Cut flowers

Satisfying the demands for flowers for the house in summer, when they fade so quickly, sometimes results in the display in the border being spoiled by too lavish cutting. A satisfactory way of avoiding this is to grow perennials specially for the purpose, either in rows in the kitchen garden, or bordering the vegetable plot. For this, it is only commonsense to choose those that will not only cut and last well, but will also need minimum attention where staking and tying are concerned. A representative, but not exhaustive list of these appears below.

It should be obvious, from the foregoing, that the uses of perennials are many and varied.

A selection of herbaceous plants

BEANS

Beans include many types of snap beans, pole beans, and Southern peas, such as black-eyed types. Plant these in spring after all danger of frost has passed. Because they grow so fast, start beans from seed directly in the garden. To speed their sprouting, soak seeds in water overnight before planting.

Green beans that grow on low, bush type plants tend to concentrate their production into a short time period, so you need to be prepared for three or four good harvests and then pull up the plants. Some gardeners will make several plantings of bush beans spaced two weeks apart to keep the harvest going through summer. On the other hand, pole beans grow on tall vines and need a trellis on which to climb. They will continue producing from spring to frost if harvested frequently. Beans will need harvesting every day or two to be sure beans don’t sit on the vines and ripen. If this happens, they will slow production.

Sometimes beans enter a lull in hot weather. Just be patient. As soon as the nights cool down a little, healthy plants will pick up where they left off.

PEAS

One of the first vegetables to be planted in spring, peas are cool weather plants that continue bearing until the weather gets too hot in summer. Plant peas in late winter or early spring as soon as the soil can be worked. Most English peas, sugar snap peas, and snow peas will need a trellis to support the 4 to 6-foot tall vines. Even dwarf selections only 2 to 3 feet tall tend to fall over, so they also need some kind of support, such as a stick or small stake around which they can wrap.

Because they grow so fast, start peas from seed directly in the garden. Soak them in water overnight before planting to speed germination.

FERTILIZING BEANS AND PEAS

Beans and peas have the unusual talent of being able to gather nitrogen from the air and process it into a usable nutrient with the help of soil-borne bacteria called rhizobia.

But even with the help of rhizobia, modern bean and pea selections are so productive that they cannot “fix” all the nitrogen they need to grow.

Young plants in particular get off to a much faster start if you work some fertilizer into the soil before you plant your seeds. Choose a Vegetable Food that contains timed-release fertilizer to provide supplemental nutrition to your beans and peas from seeding to final harvest. A single application mixed into the soil prior to planting is sufficient in all but the most sandy, infertile soils.

BEAN Facts

LIGHT Partial shade to full sun
SOIL Well drained
WATER Keep moist; water just before soil becomes dry
HARDINESS See the table below

PEA Facts

LIGHT Full sun
SOIL Rich, well drained
WATER Keep moist; water just before the soil becomes dry
HARDINESS See the table below

	SPACING	HARDINESS	TIP
BEANS	4 to 6 inches for bush beans; 6 inches for pole beans	Cannot tolerate frost; warm weather vegetables	To extend the harvest of bush beans, make several small plantings 3 weeks apart.
PEAS	3 inches apart	Seedlings tolerate frost; older plants are less cold hardy	Try different types, including shell peas, snow peas, and snap peas.

Other Vegetables

Information pertaining to broadleaf trees.  Listed below are common trees with care facts.

ACER Most maples thrive on lime and chalk, including British natives and those commonly planted. The Chinese species, such as AA, capillipes, davidii, ginnala, griseum and rufinerve, make a splendid display in chalk gardens. A. palmatum and its cultivars need more fertile soil. The American A. rubrum will not grow on chalk.

AILANTHUS Tolerates lime.

ALNUS All alders will grow well on lime but must have moisture, with the exception of A. cordata and A. incana, which will stand drier situations. The former is good on chalk.

AESCULUS The horse-chestnuts and buckeyes do well on lime and chalk, though preferring fertile soils.

AM ELAN C HIER Though naturally growing on light acid soils, these will tolerate some lime.

ARBUTUS One of the few Ericaceae that grows well on lime.

BETULA The birches do well on lime. BUXUS Good on lime, the common box grows naturally on chalk.

CARPINUS All the hornbeams are successful on either heavy alkaline soils or light chalk.

CARYA Will tolerate some lime in deep fertile soils.

CASTANEA. The sweet chestnuts do not like lime, but will tolerate it in small quantities on well-drained fertile soils.

CATALPA Lime tolerant.

CELTIS Will tolerate some lime in deep, fertile soils.

CERCIDIPHYLLUM Lime tolerant. CERCIS The Judas trees do well on lime and chalk.

CORYLUS Hazels do well on lime, including chalk.

COTONEASTER. Most kinds do well on lime, including chalk.

CRATAEGUS All thorns will grow on lime and chalk.

DAVIDIA The dove tree does well on lime and chalk.

EUCALYPTUS There is still some doubt as to which species will grow well on lime.

EUONYMUS The tree-like species thrive on lime and chalk.

EVODIA Does well in shallow chalk soil.

FAGUS The beeches have a shallow root system and thrive on well-drained soils with high lime content and on chalk. FICUS The fig-tree grows well on lime and chalk.

FRAXINUS The ashes thrive on soils with high lime content as long as they are fertile.

GLEDITSCHIA Will tolerate a little lime in fertile soils.

GYMNOCLADUS The Kentucky coffee needs a rich, loamy soil and will tolerate some lime.

HALESIA The snowdrop trees will not tolerate lime.

IDESIA This rare tree is good on chalk. ILEX Hollies are good on lime and chalk. JUGLANS Walnuts will thrive on lime soils and chalk if it is not too thin. KOELREUTERIA The golden rain tree will grow in any well-drained soil. LABURNUM Will grow anywhere. LIQUIDAMBAR Dislikes more than a trace of lime and will not grow on chalk. LIRIODENDRON The tulip trees will grow on fertile soils with high lime content but are not happy on chalk. MAGNOLIA Magnolias are not happy on limy soils, the exceptions among the tree-sized species being MM. delavayi, x highdownensis, kobus, sinensis and wilsonii.

MALUS In varying degrees the ornamental species and hybrids of apples are satisfactory on lime, and the majority do well on chalk.

NOTHOFAGUS The southern beeches so far in cultivation in Britain will, on fertile soils, stand a little lime in the soil but cannot be grown on chalk. NYSSA A lime hater.

OSTRYA The hop-hornbeams will grow on lime.

OXYDENDRUM A lime hater.

PARROTIA Is not successful where there is more than a trace of lime. PAULOWNIA Good on lime and chalk. PHELLODENDRON Good on lime and chalk.

PLATANUS The planes do well on lime. POPULUS Poplars in general need fertile moist soil and will not object if there is a lime content, but, except for PP. alba, canescens and lasiocarpa, they will not grow on chalk.

PRUNUS Almonds, apricots, bird cherries, cherries (including the Japanese cultivars), laurels (common cherry and Portugal) and peaches, all grow on soils with a lime content and, in varying degrees, are also successful on chalk. PTEROCARYA The wing-nuts will stand lime if the soil is fertile and moist. PYRUS The pears will all grow on soil with a high lime content, including chalk.

QUERCUS Most oaks do well on soils with a high lime content, including chalk, if there is sufficient depth for their tap-roots. Particularly good are QQ. canariensis, cerris, frainetto, hispanica `Lucombeana’, ilex, macranthera, robur and petraea. Willow oaks, Q. phellos, and cork oaks, Q. suber, are not good on lime.

RHUS The tree-like species will grow on lime, including chalk.

ROBINIA The false acacias will grow on lime soils and chalk, but are not at their best on them.

SALIX The tree-sized willows tolerate lime, but all need abundant moisture, and will not thrive on dry, chalk soils. SAMBUCUS The common elder will reach tree size on lime and chalk. SASSAFRAS Requires lime-free soil. SOPHORA Tolerates lime on well-drained fertile soils.

SORBUS The rowans and service trees are all good on lime, including chalk. STYRAX The snowball trees will not grow on lime.

TETRACENTRON This rare Chinese tree does well on lime and chalk.

TILIA The commonly cultivated lime trees grow naturally on limestone formations, but need moderately fertile soils.

ULMUS All elms will grow well on lime and in varying degrees on chalk. UMBELLULARIA The Californian laurel will tolerate some lime but will not thrive on shallow chalk.

ZELKOVA The ironwoods will tolerate lime but must have deep fertile soils.

Coniferous trees

ABIES Most silver firs need deep, moist soil and in such will tolerate lime. AA. amabilis, bracteata, forrestii, grandis, magnifica, procera and Veitchii are not good on soils with much lime. AA. cephalonica and pinsapo, however, will grow on chalk.

ARAUCARIA The monkey puzzle given fertile soil will tolerate lime.

CEDRUS All the cedars, especially C. atlantica, will tolerate lime on fertile soils.

CEPHALOTAXUS These small trees grow well on lime.

CHAMAECYPARIS CC. lawsoniana and nootkatensis and their cultivars do well on soils with high lime content. CC. obtusa, pisifera and thyoides are not good on lime and will not thrive on shallow chalk.

CRYPTOMERIA The Japanese cedar will tolerate lime if grown in deep, moist soil.

CUNNINGHAMIA The Chinese fir is not happy on lime soils.

x CUPRESSOCYPARIS The Leyland cypress grows well on lime and chalk.. CUPRESSUS The hardy cypresses will tolerate lime, and C. macrocarpa does well on chalk.

GINKGO The maidenhair tree grows well on fertile soils containing lime. JUNIPERUS The numerous species and their cultivars grow well on lime. LARIX Larches grow well on lime. LIBOCEDRUS The incense cedar needs deep moist loam and will tolerate some lime.

METASEQUOIA The dawn redwood does best on fertile soils, with or without some lime, and will grow slowly and healthily on chalk.

PICEA The spruces are not happy on shallow, dry soils, though most will tolerate some lime, including the much cultivated common spruce, P. abies. An exception is the striking Serbian spruce, P. omorika, which grows on limestone rocks.

PINUS Though many of the pines grow naturally on light, mountain soils and many will tolerate a little lime, the majority dislike it. Even the Scots pine, P. sylvestris, is not at its best on lime.

PP. armandii , contorta, pinaster, radiate, and strobus are unsatisfactory on lime. The handsome stone pine, P. pinea, will stand a little. The Austrian pine, P. nigra austriaca is good on chalk, as to a slightly lesser extent is the Corsican pine, P. nigra maritima. P. mugo, often no more than a spreading shrub, will also grow on chalk, as will the rare P. bungeana.

PSEUDOTSUGA The Douglas firs thrive on fertile, moist, well-drained soils, on which they will stand some lime but not chalk.

SCIADOPTYIS The umbrella pine will not grow on chalk.

SEQUOIA The giant redwood will tolerate lime if there is a good depth of fertile soil but will not grow on chalk. SEQUOIADENDRON The wellingtonia also will grow well in deep fertile soils but will not grow on chalk.

TAXODIUM The swamp cypress will not tolerate lime.

TAXUS The yews grow naturally on limestone formations and chalk, and are equally on good acid soils.

THUJA The western red cedar will grow on soils containing lime, as will the Chinese and American arbor-vitae and their cultivars.

THUJOPSIS This needs fertile, moist soils and thrives better on neutral or acid sites than on limestone.

TORREYA These yew-like trees do well on limestone and chalk.

TSUGA The western hemlock will not thrive on shallow soils containing lime or on chalk, nor will the other species occasionally planted. The eastern hemlock, T. canadensis, will, however, grow under these conditions.

Permanently wet soils The other soil factor that must be taken into consideration is continuous moisture, that is, soils that are continuously saturated. The majority of trees will not grow in these conditions, but those that will include the numerous kinds of willow (Salix), large and small, as well as the alders (Alnus), which are mostly trees of moderate size. The handsome and uncommon swamp cypress, Taxodium distichum, is also good, though very wet conditions are not necessary for its success.

Planting

A tree will normally outlive its planter. However, if it is given a good start the planter will be rewarded all the earlier by vigorous growth. Do not attempt to plant a tree in unsuitable soil. The choice having been made, you should assure yourself that you are buying stock of good quality.

Broad-leaved trees (deciduous or evergreen) These may be purchased as standards, in which the clear stem is from about 2-2.3m (6-7ft). The smaller size is more satisfactory as a rule, and will soon catch up a larger one, which may well have an undesirably spindly stem.

In some instances, when, as in a Japanese cherry, low branching will look attractive, a half-standard can be used branching at from 1-1.5m.

Have ready a sound, pointed stake long enough when driven firmly into the ground to reach to the point on the stem where the branching starts, also one of the several types of tree ties now available.

Dig or fork around where the tree is to be planted for about an area of a meter (yard) square. Particularly if the ground is poor or heavy, work in some well-rotted compost or peat.

Remove the wrappings of the roots and cut off any that are broken. Dig a hole which will take the root system, as nearly as possible so that when the tree is stood in it, the soil mark on the stem is level with, or just below, the surrounding soil. It is, except where willows are concerned, very bad practice to plant too’deeply. When you have ensured that the planting hole has been dug to the correct depth, lift the tree out and drive the stake well in at about the centre of the hole.

Replace the tree, working the roots round the stake so that the stake is as close as possible to the stem. This is easily done if someone else holds the tree in place. If you are working single-handed, loosely tie the tree to the stake.

Work soil carefully among the roots, the fine soil among the fine roots, firming it carefully with the fingers. Then almost fill the hole, frequently firming it by gentle treading. Next water the tree well; when the water has sunk in, lightly fill the hole up. Finally, attach the tie at the top of the stem.

Conifers

Conifers supplied are usually of a much shorter length than broad-leaved trees and seldom need staking. It is most important to disturb the root ball as little as possible. The sacking which binds the ball may be left on until the tree is in the hole. The knot or lacing that holds it is then cut and gently teased loose and left in the hole. If the tree is not absolutely firm, a stout garden cane and strong string should be sufficient to secure it.

Planting of deciduous trees should be done as soon after leaf fall as possible, but may continue until early spring before the buds begin to break.

Conifers are best planted in autumn, when they will make root at once, and be established by spring. It is less desirable to plant in winter when the roots are for long quite inactive. Early spring is the next best time, for root growth will soon be active. But watering during a spring drought with an east wind is then essential. A mulch is also helpful.

Maintenance and pruning

The area round the base of the tree should be kept weeded until it is well established. Watch the tie regularly and keep it from becoming too tight, ie, allow a little play. Strangulation may cause great damage. Remove the stake only when the tree is absolutely firm—this will take at least three years.

To keep the tree shapely, preferably with a single leading shoot, the following rules should always be followed in pruning trees young or old.

Always cut a shoot or branch back to the point where it arises, making the cut as clean and flush and as close to the main branch as possible. If a ‘snag’ is left, it will not grow and will eventually rot and cause damage.

If the shoot or branch is of any weight, carry out the operation in two stages, the first taking off the weight and leaving a short snag that can then be removed without its bark tearing away back into the main stem. If the scar is large, paint it with one of the proprietary sealing paints.

Ornamental trees are in general best pruned from mid-to-late summer. The wounds then heal quickly and attacks by fungi or bacteria are held at bay. This applies particularly to most species of Prunus, especially cherries, It also applies to maples, birches and walnuts which ‘bleed’ sap during the winter and spring.

Never attempt to carry out pruning on a large tree; always obtain the services of a qualified tree surgeon. Unless properly done, it will probably result in damage and disfigurement of the tree, and in addition is often a highly dangerous undertaking for the unskilled operator.

Pests and diseases Those affecting ornamental trees can be divided into three main classes : disease due to bacterial or fungal action, damage caused by insects and damage caused by animals (including birds). Of the first, the most seriously affected trees are members of the rose family (Rosaceae).

Bacterial canker attacks cherries and plums. It is associated with the oozing and dripping of gum from branches or the trunks. Some control can be obtained by pruning out branches affected.

Silver-leaf also affects plums, cherries and apples in particular and occasionally thorns and laurels. The leaves take on a silvery appearance and on a branch that dies a purplish-mauve fungus arises. This should be cut out and burned without delay.

Fire blight may attack pears, hawthorns, rowans, whitebeams and pyracanthus. Whole shoots in leaf go brown, as if burned, and die. If this is found, the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food must be notified at once. The most serious ‘killer’ fungus is the honey-fungus. It occurs generally on ground that has been woodland which has been cleared with the stumps or many large roots left in the ground. Root-like growths, resembling boot-laces spread through the soil and infect a healthy tree, which is eventually killed and should be removed. From the ground around it, toadstools may, but do not always, arise. They are pale yellow, the gills on the underside running a little way down the stalk, which carries a collar-like ring around it. There is no known cure. It attacks conifers.

Since confession is good for the soul, I feel compelled to say that I always order too many seeds.  And since making excuses is one of the hallmarks of the human condition, I will also say that my seed surplus is not entirely my fault.  Seed companies and garden magazines and charities send me all kinds of small seed packets in an effort to get me to buy or subscribe or donate.  Since to err is human and to forgive divine, I will strive for divinity by forgiving my own horticultural gluttony.

            Still, forgiving does not mean forgetting—at least not this year.  Before the latest seed order lands in the mailbox I am determined to figure out what to do with all the seeds left over from years past.

            The four packages of giant sunflower seeds will be planted in front of our summer cottage.  My seven year-old nephew loves sunflowers, and for some unaccountable reason my sister (his mother) has trouble growing them at home.  I believe that she also has trouble attracting ants to a picnic, but that is another story.  It’s better not to speculate on family foibles.

            The packets of Viola ‘Helen Mount’, Viola ‘Scottish Strain’, Pansy ‘Ghost Mix’ and Pansy ‘Maxim Marina’ will be planted immediately, because they take a long time to reach blooming size.  Given my previous success rate with pansies and violas, I should end up with about enough plants to fill a 6” pot.

            I don’t know what possessed me when I spent $1.29 on a packet of mixed impatiens.  Come spring I plan to strew them in a shady spot and forget about them.  Some plants seem to regard neglect as a challenge, so the impatiens will undoubtedly germinate.  In the meantime, I will have eradicated them from my memory.  The appearance of a few flowers several months later will convince me once again that miracles can happen.

            I should probably do the same thing with the unlabeled inner seed envelope that has directions written on it in seven languages.  Unfortunately none of the directions, as far as I can tell, mention the seeds’ genus or species.  Judging by their appearance, they could be morning glories.  I will assume that they are, and in two months time I will soak the seeds overnight then start them in individual pots.  Even if they are not morning glories, this treatment probably will not hurt them.  I hope the plants are a pleasant surprise, but if they are not I can rest secure in the knowledge that I have never ordered anything carnivorous.  The worst they can possibly be is ugly.

            I know that I wanted to use the Thumbergia (Black-eyed Susan vine) for a hanging basket.  If I establish some kind of tropical zone on my back porch this year, they might be appropriate.  At any rate, they grow quickly and don’t need to be started much before the last frost date in April.

            The half packet of larkspur is also destined for our summer cottage.  I planted the first half in one of the back beds last year.  It self-seeded in a remarkably promiscuous way, and now I am sure that I will have larkspur in perpetuity.  I am equally sure that if I plant some larkspur on our shale beach, they will spread with similar wild abandon.  The prospect of the purple, white and mauve blossoms popping up here and there along the waterfront seems delightful, although it might irritate some of the die-hard native plant enthusiasts.

            The packet of marigold seeds must have been something that I thought about for the garden at my previous address.  My current garden came with an astonishing number of existing marigolds, apparently descended from those planted by the former owner.  Last fall they looked lovely paired with the larkspur, but I don’t have room to plant any more.  Marigolds have their uses, but they have never been among my favorites.  It’s possible that I can give them to the Sunday school director at my church, so that her young charges can grow them in paper cups for Mother’s Day.

            The two packages of columbines and the one package of pink foxglove will go into one of the shady beds that I have planned for my backyard.  I have never had much luck with columbines planted from seed, but there is always a first time.  I love them when they bloom, and the leaves are beautiful even when they are besieged by leaf miners.

            That generous woman, Martha Stewart, keeps sending me stencils and packets of basil seeds in an attempt to bribe me into subscribing to her magazine.  I could have sworn that I planted all the sample seed packs of basil last year, but apparently, I overlooked two of them. Martha probably knows that unasked-for basil packs tend to give birth if left in dark corners.  At any rate, I will grow the basil, dry it and use it next winter.  Perhaps I will even make a wreath out of it to remind me of the doyenne of domesticity.

            By now it is clear that I am a woman of slovenly horticultural habits, who neglects her cellar and ignores her excess inventory.  It’s’ all true, but at least if some kind of natural disaster happens, I will be able to replant the planet.

by E. Ginsburg

A few weeks ago, I went to the garden center to buy some pansies to put in decorative pots by my front porch. In my experience, pansies hold up even after the mums bite the dust, and they provide color just about as long as anyone has a right to expect color from a garden plant.

I arrived and found a bounteous assortment in a myriad of hues, including orange, which somehow looks less garish in fall than it does in May. The thing that stopped me in my tracks was that about twenty-five percent of the pansy display space was devoted to something new—”Icicle Pansies”™. These pansies, specially packaged and displayed under their own colorful promotional banner, were eye-catching . According to the copy on the banner and the plant tags, they are guaranteed to bloom in the fall, overwinter, and bloom the following spring. It sounded like a good deal, the plants were plump and healthy, and two seasons of bloom would more than justify the premium price.

This reminded me of similar experiences I have had recently in a number of different garden centers. Last spring as I shopped for perennials, I was drawn to a special display area that was reserved exclusively for Etera™ Perennials. This contained many different plant species, all potted in coconut fiber pots that were surrounded by special cardboard covers featuring the Etera logo. Making my way to the roses I saw a vast expanse of pink, two-gallon pots containing the popular Groundcover Roses™. The copy in the little brochure attached to the plants said that they were brought to me by a plant industry genius named Anthony Tesselaar. Mr. Tesselaar’s roses are low growing cultivars with red, pink, white or yellow blooms. The copy described them as being totally carefree, abundantly floriferous and so hardy that they could probably survive a nuclear winter.

When I turned my attention to annuals I saw many pots of Million Bells™ Calibracoa, a cascading plant available in a multitude of appealing colors. Calibracoa is a relative of the common petunia, and the Million Bells variety was developed by Suntory, a Japanese company. Since Suntory is better known for its Scotch and other distilled spirits than for flowering plants, I was intrigued. Imagine what will happen when Kraft Foods finds out that there is already a peony variety called ‘Cheddar Charm’.

This avalanche of trademarked plant varieties has occurred because gardening is big business, and big business attracts other big businesses. Fifty years ago, when people went out to buy plants, they were likely to go to a nursery where the plants were actually grown. Such places still exist, but with the proliferation of gardening as a hobby, the subsequent explosion in the number of outlets where plants can be obtained, and the high cost of real estate in suburban areas, the vast majority of garden centers rely on plants grown offsite. From this kind of centralized cultivation and distribution system, it is only a short step to the formation of big plant-producing companies. And from there it is only another short step to the marketing of trademarked plant varieties. Such marketing can sometimes be a help to gardeners, but it is more often a help to mega-plant producers’ bottom lines.

Most of the trademarked plants are marketed to be as user friendly as possible. Bright packaging draws the eye, and each specimen comes with a highly descriptive plant tag, or even, as in the case of Monrovia plants, a mini-booklet on the cultural requirements of the specific shrub or perennial. This makes it a lot easier for the novice gardener. Also, the plants selected for trademarking tend to be “no-fail” varieties like the “My Favorite Petunias”, marketed by the Tesselaar firm in conjunction with Ball Horticultural Company, an American seed and plant concern. For those who want a plant that they can buy, plop in the ground and forget about, the marketers make it easy.

So what is the harm in something that is easy to grow, comes in a variety of appealing colors and claims to be black-thumb proof? For one thing, it puts the squeeze on smaller plant producers who simply do not have the capital to invest in costly and intensive marketing. Their plants may be every bit as good, but they don’t have the resources to get the attention. The big marketers also take up shelf space in garden centers that was formerly devoted to smaller producers’ products, tightening the economic squeeze.

The big marketers are also plant specialists and spend lots of money developing new plants with specific traits, but they also tend to focus on a few genera and species. There are lots of interesting garden plants out there that are not well adapted to every climate zone in the United States, or are relatively difficult to propagate, or have subtle rather than obvious virtues. Small producers keep such plants alive, literally, figuratively and commercially. If those producers are squeezed out of business by national or even global plant producers, those worthy plants will be a lot harder to come by.

When you go to the garden center, it pays to know what you are looking for and to think carefully about what you are buying. The alluring Icicle Pansies, for example, are almost indistinguishable from their less-hyped cousins. In my experience in this climate pansies purchased in the fall often overwinter and bloom again the next spring—with or without a guarantee. In a case like that, you might as well save a few dollars on your purchase, pocket the change and spend the savings on one of those trademarked coffee drinks at your local Starbucks.
by E. Ginsburg

Press Here!
Yellow Rose
SWORD LILIES
CHANGE IN THE GARDEN
UNFORGETTABLE
FRESH VEGGIES

The soil must have adequate drainage; otherwise, air may be excluded, and the more beneficial micro-organisms may be destroyed. Soils which have poor drainage are often sour and acid. It will be necessary to improve this acidity by applications of hydrated lime. Wet soils are cold ones, and this means that plant growth is severely retarded. The situation is even more critical in the northern, colder parts of the country. Waterlogged soils cause roots to rot and a combination of all these problems can produce complete failures in some gardens.

Soils which are well-drained have sufficient natural coarse, gritty material or sand and many soils have a high proportion of small stones also. A high humus or organic content will also ensure good drainage. It is usually the clay soils which are the most difficult with regard to drainage, although a
hard ‘pan’ or layer beneath the surface of some soils can also present a problem. Such a pan is usually produced by mechanical cultivation which, in some instances, can consolidate the lower soil layers. Setting the plough or cultivators to cultivate to the same depth season after season will also produce this hard, unbroken layer. Varying the cultivating depth occasionally usually overcomes this difficulty.

Clay soils are composed of finer particles and these tend to pack so tightly together that they soon form a solid mass through which excess water cannot pass easily. Improving the drainage here consists in opening up these fine particles. This can be done by liming the soil. The particles of soil cling together in large granules after this treatment. If sharp, gritty material such as coarse sand or well-weathered cinders is worked in, the clay particles will be separated and made more open. Bulky materials such as peat, composted vegetable waste and strawy manure are invaluable as soil conditioners. Gypsum is another preparation which has proved excellent for the breaking up of heavy, waterlogged clay soils.

Where cultural methods are not sufficient to provide a marked improvement in difficult conditions, it will be necessary to improve drainage by a system of drains or drainage trenches. The most efficient method is to use field or pipe drains. These are expensive, especially if drainage on a large scale is necessary. The pipes are sold in several sizes; those 5-7cm (2-3in) in diameter are the best for the amateur.

Trenches are dug out to receive these pipes, at least 40cm (15in) deep. All trenches should slope in one direction and this slope need not exceed 1 in 40. The trenches should be arranged in a herringbone fashion and should lead to one main trench which runs from the highest point in the garden to the lowest. The side or intermediate trenches should meet this main trench at an approximate angle of 45°.

The pipes should be laid, for preference, on a 5cm (2in) layer of coarse gravel or cinders. Each pipe should be kept about 1 cm (1/2in) away from its neighbor and the junction covered with a piece of slate, broken tile or a small piece of tough plastic sheeting. More gravel or cinders should be carefully placed around and on top of the pipes as work proceeds. The gaps between the pipes are essential to allow excess water to enter them and drain away inside the pipes. Frequent checks should be made with a little water from a watering can or hose pipe to see that water flows steadily along the pipes.

The main pipe line must be taken to a suitable outlet such as a ditch or soak-away. The latter can be constructed by digging out a large hole as deeply as possible and filling it in with stones,

clinker, gravel or ashes. This hole must be at least 60-90cm (2-3ft) square and deep. Under no circumstances must drainage water be allowed to flow on to neighbors’ property. Where a stream or ditch is available for the emptying of drainage water, the local City Waste & Water Department should be consulted to make quite sure whether it is permissible to discharge the water in this way.

An efficient drainage system can be provided if trenches are lined with rubble and coarse cinders. A similar system of trenches should be taken out and the bottom half filled with rubble. This layer of rubble should be then covered with about 15cm (6in) of coarse cinders. The trench is then filled up with soil. Surplus water will run through the coarser base material and finally into the large drainage sump at the lowest part of the garden.

It is possible to use a third system, although this is not quite so satisfactory as the others. This method employs brushwood which is laid in bundles at the bottom of the trench systems. The brushwood is then covered with soil to the surface of the surrounding ground. The unsatisfactory part of this method is that the brushwood gradually rots away and loses its efficiency. It will be necessary to renew the system every few years, and unless the layout is small, this will involve a great deal of time and labor.

Where a new site is taken over, it is a very good idea to examine it thoroughly to see whether or not the soil requires attention to drainage. If it does it will provide an excellent opportunity to gather 41 the usual kinds of rubble which can be found on a new or neglected site. Builders often leave behind them a surprising amount of broken bricks, old paint tins, and lumps of concrete.

All this type of waste should be placed in convenient piles in the garden and used in the bottom of drainage trenches. If insufficient is available from the garden, it is quite likely that the local builder will be only too glad to supply some from his building sites.

During the planning of a drainage system for a waterlogged or poorly drained garden, it is a good plan to look ahead and visualize the positions for structures such as sheds, greenhouses or home extensions. All these buildings shed water and it will certainly aggravate the situation if this water is allowed to flow into the garden.

The position of a convenient drainage trench should be marked with a stake so that, later on, excess water from a gutter or down-spout can be directed into this drainage trench. The emptying of a fish pond is also facilitated if the water is directed on to an area of ground which is drained in this way, or if an outlet pipe is built into one of these drainage trenches.

Shallots

Some people prefer the milder flavor of shallot, Allium ascalonicum, which they grow in place of onions. However, shallots are grown for pickling. When stocks of non-bolting onion sets were not available, many gardeners found shallot growing far easier than onion growing. The soil in which they are to be grown must be well-drained and, unless very large bulbs are required, without manure or fertilizers. A very poor soil is greatly improved by being mulched with garden compost just prior to planting time.

Traditionally, shallots were planted on the shortest day in December and lifted on the longest day in June. The soil is seldom suitable for planting during the winter, and planting between late February and early April produces good results. Simply press the bulbs into the ground at intervals of 20cm (8in) in the row, and allow 30cm (12in) between rows. Birds, earthworms and severe frost may loosen the bulbs so, about a week after planting, inspect the bed and replant or replace where necessary. If birds continue to pull out the bulbs the bed should be netted.

Unless the plants are to be fed with liquid manure for the production of very large shallots, little is needed in the way of cultivation. Weeds may be removed by hand or hoeing. Alternatively, use sedge peat as a mulch around the plants in late April.

In early June, draw a little of the mulch or surrounding soil away from the bulb clusters to allow more sunlight to reach them. The foliage will yellow in July when the clusters should be lifted with the garden fork and spread out to dry. In fine, sunny weather dry them in the open; in wet weather under cover. The greenhouse staging, the cold frame or under cloches are suitable places.

When quite dry, split the clusters into separate bulbs and store them in a cool, airy place for use when required. The bulbs are best stored in Dutch trays or in vegetable nets. Do not store in sacks or polythene bags. Some of the medium-sized bulbs may be set aside for planting in the following season. There are both yellow and red shallots. These include `Giant Long Keeping’, yellow; and `Giant Long Keeping’, red; and ‘Giant Red. ‘ffiltive de Niort ‘and ‘The Aristocrat’ are favored by exhibitors.

Climbing leaf-losing shrubby plants, from Brazil, which belong to the family Nyctaginaceae. They are cultivated outdoors in the far South and in colder climates in greenhouses. The slender woody stems are furnished with small, ovate to elliptic-lanceolate, green leaves and sharp thorns.

The small inconspicuous flowers which are produced in summer, are surrounded by large colored bracts which form the decorative feature of the plants. The name Bougainvillea commemorates de Bougainville, a French navigator.

Details of Management.

The best soil for Bougainvilleas consists of two-thirds loam and one-third leaf mold, sand, and broken brick. They may be grown in large pots, the shoots trained around stakes, but they are seen in full beauty only when planted in a ground bed of soil.

In this, the plant is set in autumn or spring, and the shoots, as they develop, are tied to wires fixed to the roof. In spring a few inches of topsoil is removed and replaced with fresh compost. A minimum winter temperature of 55 degrees is required. During the summer months abundance of water is necessary, but in winter the soil is kept almost dry.

Pruning and Propagation.

Pruning consists of cutting back the lateral shoots of the previous summer’s growth to within two buds of the base in February. Propagation is effected by inserting cuttings of half-ripe or semiwoody shoots about 4 in. in length, in summer. They are set in a propagating case in the greenhouse. When rooted, they are potted separately in 3-in. pots and, later on, in 5-in. pots, from which they are planted out in the bed.

The Chief Kinds.

Bougainvillea glabra bears carmine-rose bracts; the variety Sanderiana has bracts of rich rose-red, and variegata has leaves marked with creamy-white. B. spectabilis has rose-colored bracts and showy varieties are Crimson Lake, bright crimson and praetoriensis, rich golden-bronze. A white-bracted variety is also grown. The leaves of B. Harrisii are dark green variegated with creamy white.